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THE NEW YOM
PUBLIC USHART

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THE

JAPANESE

IN AMEKIOA,

EDITED BY

CHARLES LANMAN,
\

AMERICAN SECRETARY OF JAPANESE LEGATION IN WASHINGTON.

NEW YORK:
UIvriyERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY,

lo5 AjiTD 157 Crosby Street.
1872.

THE KEW YOnK
PlTBLir IIBRAIIY

Entered according to act of Congress, in tlie year 1S72, by the

UNIVERSITY PUBLISHIXG COMPANY,

In the OflBce of tlie Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE

The threefold object of this volume is to give an ac-
count, from official sources, of the Embassy recently accred-
ited to the United States by the Tenno of Japan ; to print
a collection of essays written by the Japanese students
now residing in this country and illustrating their style of
thought and expression ; and to republish a little work on
America, compiled under the direction of Jugoi Arinori
Mori, the Charge d' Affaires from Japan. An edition of the
last-named production was printed under the title of Life
and Resources in America^ and intended for exclusive cir-
culation in Japan, where it is to be translated into the lan-
guage of that country. It having been suggested to Mr.
Mori, by many of his friends, that the American public
would be glad to read the volume, he considered the ques-
tion in a friendly spirit, and consented to its republication
in the present form.

Ly. :^.^

CONTENTS.

PART I.

Paqb
The Japanese Embassy 7

PART II.

The Japanese Students 55

The Practical Americans Enoiiye. 67

The Chinese Ambassadors in France Toyama. 72

Co-Education of Boys and Girls Takato, 78

O Oriental Cr^ilization Hicomaro. 81

C^ History op Japan Megata. 86

Cr> Christianity in Japan Hyash. 91

^^^ The Strength and Weakness of Republics, .^nowy^. 94

Japanese Costume Kanda. 100

A Father's Letter Neero. 103

The Memorable Year Enouye. 108

George Washington Kanda. 114

^ Public and Private Schools Enouye. 117

^ Christmas Kanda. 124

Japanese Poetry TakaM. 127

* CONTEXTS.

PART III.

Pagjs

Life akd Kksources ix Amekica ];;;

Intkoduotion lao

Official axd Political Life 14:j

Life Among the Farmers and Planters lo9

Commercial Life and Developments 18(5

Life Among the Mechanics 20o

Religious Life and Institutions 215

Life in the Factories. . . 246

Educational Life and Institutions 205

Literary, Artistic, and Scientific Lifj: 282

Life Among the Miners 301

Life in the Army and Navy 812

Life in the Leading Cities. 322

Frontier Life and Developments 337

Judicial Life 344

Additional Notes 35I

PAET I.

THE JAPANESE EMBASSY.

Oisr the 12tli day of January, 1872, Jujoi Arinori Mori,
the Japanese Charge d'Affaires in Washington, addressed
a letter to the Hon. Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State,
from which we extract the following paragraphs : ^' I have
the honor to inform you that I have received dispatches
from my Government, communicating the information that
a Special Embassy from the Tenno of Japan to the Govern-
ment of the United States would soon arrive in this
country. On what particular day they were to sail I do
not know ; but I presume they will reach Washington
about the close of the present month. . . . The object
to be attained by this Embassy will be fully stated on a
future occasion ; but, in the mean time, I may remark that
one of them will be to increase the friendly relations
already existing between Japan and the United States."

In November, 1871, his Majesty Montsohito, Emperor
of Japan, had, at a dinner given to his nobles at his palace
in Tokei, before sending forth the Ambassadors of Japan
and Suite, accredited to the Fifteen Foreign Treaty Powers,
delivered the following:

THE JAPANESE IN AMERICA.

ADDRESS : *

"After careful stu(3y and observation, I am deeply im-
pressed with the belief that the most powerful and en-
lightened nations of the world are those who have made dil-
igent effort to cultivate their minds, and sought to develop
their country in the fullest and most perfect manner.

*' Thus convinced, it becomes my responsible duty, as a
Sovereign, to lead our people wisely, in a way to attain
for them results equally beneficial ; and their duty is to
assist diligently and unitedly in all efforts to attain these
ends. How, otherwise, can Japan advance and sustain
herself upon an independent footing among the nations of
the world ?

" From you, nobles of this realm, whose dignified position
is honored and conspicuous in the eyes of the people at
large, I ask and expect conduct well becoming your ex-
alted position — ever calculated to endorse, by your per-
sonal example, those goodly precepts to be employed
hereafter in elevating the masses of our people.

" I have to-day assembled your honorable body in our
presence-chamber that I might first express to you my
intentions, and, in foreshadowing my policy, also impress
you all with the fact that both this Government and people
wnll expect from you diligence and wisdom, while leading
and encouraging those in your several districts, to move
forward in paths of progress. Remember, your responsi-
bility to your country is both great and important. What-
ever our natural capacity for intellectual development,
diligent effort and cultivation is required to attain success-
ful results.

" If w^e would profit by the useful arts and sciences and
conditions of society prevailing among more enlightened
nations, we must either study these at home as best we
can, or send abroad an expedition of practical observers,
to foreign lands, competent to acquire for us those things
* Translated by Noriuki Gah.

HISTOEY OF THE EMBASSY. 7

our people lack, which are best calculated to benefit this
nation.

" Travel in foreign countries, properly indulged in, will
increase your store of useful knowledge; and although
some of you may be advanced in age, unfitted for the
vigorous study of new ways, all may bring back to our
people much valuable information. Great national defects
require immediate remedies.

" We lack superior institutions for high female culture.
Our women should not be ignorant of those great prin-
ciples on which the happiness of daily life frequently de-
pends. How important the education of mothers, on whom
future generations almost wholly rely for the early cultiva-
tion of those intellectual tastes which an enlightened system
of training is designed to develop !

*' Liberty is therefore granted wives and sisters to accom-
pany their relatives on foreign tours, that they may acquaint
themselves with better forms of female education, and, on
their return, introduce beneficial improvements in the train-
ing of our children.

*' With diligent and united efibrts, manifested by all classes
and conditions of people throughout the empire, we may
attain successivelj'' the highest degrees of civilization within
our reach, and shall experience no serious difficulty in main-
taining power, independence, and respect among nations.

"To you, nobles, I look for the endorsement of these
views ; fulfill my best expectations by carrying out these
suggestions, and you will perform faithfully your indi-
vidual duties to the satisfaction of the people of Japan."

On the morning of January 15th, the steamer America
arrived at San Francisco, having on board one hundred
and seven Japanese passengers, of whom forty-nine con-
stituted the Embassy, while the remainder consisted of five
young ladies and fifty-three young gentlemen and servants,
who were accompanied by the Hon. Charles E. DeLong.

8 THE JAPANESE liT AMEKICA.

American Minister to Japan, and his family, and W. S.
Rice, Esq., Interpreter of the United States Legation in
Japan. The official list of officers composing the Embassy-
is as follows :

Ambassador Extraordinary.

NAMES AND RANK. OFFICIAL POSITION IN JAPAN,

Rionii Tomomi Iwakura Junior Prime Minister.

Vice-Ambassadors Extraordinary.

Jussammi Takayossi Kido Council of State.

Jussammi TossiiMitsi Okubo Minister of Finance.

Jusbie HiROBUMi Ito Acting Minister of Public

Works.

Jushie Massouka Yamagutsi Assistant Minister of the For-
eign Affairs.

First Secretaries.

Yaskazou Tanabe Foreign Department.

NomuKi Gah Foreign Department.

Atsnobou Shioda.. . . Foreign Department.

Ghen-Itsiko Foukoutsi Treasury Department.

Second Secretaries.

HiROMOTO Watanabe Foreign Department.

Termori Comatz Foreign Department.

Tadas Hyasii Foreign Department.

Keljiro Nagano Foreign Department.

Third Secretary.
QuANDO Kawage Foreign Department.

Fourth Secretaries.

Massatsnk Ikeda Educational Department.

Tadatsne Ando Foreign Department.

Privata Secretary to Chief Ambassador.
KouNiTAKE KouME Clerk to the Legislative Code.

Attache.
Yassi Nomoura Foreign Department.

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 9

Commissioners connected with, the Ambassadors.

NAMES AND KANK. OFFICIAL POSITION IN JAPAN.

Jusliie Tak.\xori Sassaki Acting Minister of the Judi-
cial Department.

Jussammi Mitsitomi Higassikouze.. Chief Chamberlain of the Im-
perial Court.

Jugoi Akiyossi Yamada Brigadier-General of the Im-
perial Army.

Mits-Aki Tanaka Commissioner of the Bureau

of Census, Treas. Dept.

FouziMAR Tanaka Chief Clerk of the Educational

Department.

Tameyossi Hida Commissioner of Dockyards,

Public Work Department.

NoBOUYOssr Nakayama Vice Governor of Hiogo.

Yassoukaz Yassouba Deputy Commiss'r of Revenue.

Jushie Yassounaka Itsoutsouzi. . .Assistant Director of Cere-
mony, Imperial Court.

Tadakats Outsmi Secretary to the Governor of

Kanagawa.
Officers attached to the said Commissioners.

Yossikazou Wakayama Treasury Department.

HissoM Abe Treasury Department.

MoRiKATA Oki Treasury Department.

Kazounaki Souguiyama .Treasury Department.

NoRiYAs ToMiTA Treasury Department.

Nagamassa Yo Id Treasury Department.

Kasoumitsi Hauada War Department.

NoRiTSOUGOU Nagayo Educatioual Department,

Nagamoto Nakassima Educational Department.

Massatsna Kondo Educational Department.

Waro Imamoura Educational Department.

KiMiHiRA OuTsniouRA Educational Department.

Takato 0-Sima Public Works Department.

FouROU OuRiu Public Works Department.

Take-Akira Nakano Judicial Department.

SiGUETOSSi Oka-Outsi Judicial Department.

YossiNARi HfRAKA Judicial Department.

HouMtAKiRA Nagano Judicial Department.

Tsounemits Mocjrata .Imperial Court.

YossiNAGA Takatsouzi .Imperial Court.

HiROYAs Kagawa Imperial Court.

10 THE JAPANESE liT AMERICA.

The formal reception of the Embassy took place on the
clay following their arrival at San Francisco, and the kind
wishes of the citizens and the hospitalities of the city were
tendered to the distinguished strangers by the Mayor, the
Hon. William Alvord. By special request of the Board
of Supervisors, the Mayor w^as also requested to address a
letter of welcome to the Embassy, which was accordingly
done on the 18th, and in which he remarked as follows :
" As the nearest neighbor, on this continent, of the Empire
of Japan, the people of San Francisco feel a special pride
in welcoming you to our city, the landing-place, in America,
of an Embassy w^hose labors are doubtless destined to be
followed by results in the highest degree interesting and
important in their bearings upon the progress and enlight-
enment of all nations, and especially to the commercial
prosperity of Japan and the United States. The Board
take pleasure in extending to your Excellencies every
facility for visiting and examining our public institutions,
and cheerfully place at your disposal all means of informa-
tion, trusting that your stay here will be agreeable, and
that the great objects of the Embassy will be achieved by
bringing into nearer intimacy the ancient and modern
civilizations, cementing still closer our mutual relations of
trade and commerce, and strengthening the ties of inter-
national friendship." The Press of San Francisco, in a
body, paid their respects to the members of the Embassy,
and were treated with attention. A committee of citizens
also w^aited upon the dignitaries, and, in reply to an address
of welcome from R. B. Swain, President of the Board of
Commerce, the Chief Ambassador replied, through an in-
terpreter, as follows :

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 11

" Gentlemen . Being commissioned by His Imperial Majesty, the
Tenno of Japan, to visit all the Treaty Powers, we have reached your city
on our way, and have been greatly pleased at receiving so warm a welcome
upon the threshold of your Continent. We receive it thankfully, as a
distinguished honor paid to our sovereign and our country.

" Commerce, following in the path of our first friendly relation, has been
an active agent in drawing our respective countries nearer together, in the
strongest bonds of friendship. Our people have, by its means, become
acquainted with the civilization of more enlightened nations, and they now
seek to advance themselves in a knowledge of the arts, sciences, products,
and mechanisms of western nations.

" The true spirit of our mission is to establish peaceful relations more
firmly, and to see how greater privileges may be granted in the true inter-
ests of a righteous government and a free people.

" Our mission being one of investigation, we shall inspect with pleasure
your manufactures and machinery, your colleges and schools, and your
system of justice ; and as these are to become the guide of our nation in the
future, this study will be one tending to promote our national welfare,
and, as commerce is reciprocal, may be of future direct interest to your
city.

" Your kind offer to share with us your acquired knowledge, and ex-
hibit to us your various industries, we gladly accept, and shall not fail to
note them carefully, and aim in the future to establish with you active in-
tercourse and practical results.

" We assure you, that as soon as His Imperial Majesty, the Tenno of
Japan, is informed, from our letter, of your generous hospitality, he will
undoubtedly testify his eminent satisfaction, and the hearts of the whole
people of Japan will feel deeply grateful."

In the evening of the same day, the citizens of San
Francisco gathered around the Grand Hotel and gave an
admirable serenade, and, on being called out on the bal-
cony, the Chief Ambassador, as before, delivered the fol-
lowing address :

" Citizens of Sak Francisco : It is now a recognized fact in Japan,
since the conclusion of the treaty between the United States and our
country, that our true prosperity has greatly increased with our new com-
mercial intercourse. Our advancement in the arts and sciences of western
nations we now consider a substantial benefit to our nation, and desire
that with every increase of national intercourse there shall be an increase
of international friendship. (Cheers.)

12 THE JAPANESE IX AMERICA.

" With a view of hastening these results, and further facilitating the in-
struction of our people in the civilization of western nations, His Imperial
Majesty, the Ten no, has commissioned us to visit all those countries
having treaties with Japan, in the capacity of Ambassadors Plenipotentiary,
first visiting your country. The warmth of our reception is unquestion-
able proof to us of the friendship of Americans, and I assure you it is
more than echoed in the hearts of our people. (Cheers.)

" Your expression of feeling, when announced to His Imperial Majesty,
will be made known thi-oughout Japan, and assist in cementing a mutual
friendship between our countries, which it is the wish of the Japanese
people should constantly increase, as by intercourse we get to know each
other better." (Cheers.)

On the same day the Chief Amhassador, on behalf of the
Embassy, sent a telegram through to Nagasaki, Japan,
announcing to his Government their safe arrival in this
city, and the cordial reception they had met with. This
dispatch went direct to Hongkong, whence it was trans-
mitted by cable to Nagasaki.

He also sent word across the continent to his three sons,
who are students in Rutgers College, Brunswick, New
Jersey. An answer was received just as he had concluded
his first address to the American people. It announced
the good health of his sons, and their joy at his safe arrival
in this country. The contents and the occasion combined
to render him exceedingly happy.

During the whole of their stay in San Francisco the
members of the Embassy were treated with marked kind-
ness and cordiality ; but the great event of their visit was
a superb banquet, which was given to them by the leading
citizens, at the Grand Hotel, on the 23d of January. After
the preliminary toasts had been disposed of, that of "Our
Distinguished Guests" was proposed, when the Chief
Ambassador rose, and was greeted with prolonged ap-

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 13

planse. He spoke in his native tongue. Mr. Tadas
Il3'ash then read the following remarks in English :

" Gentlemen : 1 earnestly desire to express, on behalf of the other
members of this Embassy, and in my own behalf, our warmest thanks for
all the kind honors you have shown us. The particulars of our reception,
and the princely hospitality of your banquet this evening, Avill be sources
of great gratification to our Emperor and his subjects.

" The relative situation of this port to Japan is such that your prosr
perity w411 be the promoter of our civilization, and we hope our progress
will contribute to enrich your city. We promise our best exertions to
uphold and increase friendly relations between our countries, by which, in
future, we will have many mutual interests. The gratitude I feel for
your great kindness is beyond my power of expression. Governor Ito, one
of our ambassadors, wall respond more fully in our behalf."

The Vice-Ambassador Ito, in furtherance of the response,
read the following words in a clear voice, so as to be dis-
tinctly understood by all present :

" Gentlemen : Being honored by your kind generosity, I gladly ex-
press to you, and through you to the citizens of San Francisco, our heart-
felt gratitude for the friendly reception which has everywhere greeted the
Embassy since its arrival in your State, and especially for the marked
compliment paid this evening to our nation.

" This is perhaps a fitting opportunity to give a brief and reliable out-
line of many improvements being introduced into Japan. Eew but native
Japanese have any correct knowledge of our country's internal condition.

" Friendly intercourse w^ith the Treaty Powers has been maintained
(first among which was the United States), and a good understanding on
the part of our people has increased commercial relations.

" Our mission, under special instruction from His Majesty, the Emperor,
while seeking to protect the rights and interests of our respective nations,
will seek to unite them more closely in the future, convinced that we shall
appreciate each other more Avhen we know each other hetter.

" By reading, hearing, and by observation in foreign lands, our people
have acquired a general knowledge of constitutions, habits, and manners,
as they exist in most foreign countries. Foreign customs are now gener-
ally understood throughout Japan.

" To-day it is the earnest wish of both our Government and people to
strive for the highest points of civilization enjoyed by more enlightened
countries. Looking to this end, we have adopted their military, naval,

14 THE JAPANESE IX AMEEICA.

scientific, and educational institutions, and knowledge has flowed to us
freely in the wake of foreign commerce. Although our improvement has
been rapid in material civilization, the mental improvement of our people
has been far greater. Our wisest men, after careful observation, agree in
this opinion.

" While held in absolute obedience by despotic sovereigns through many
thousand years, our people kncAV no freedom or liberty of thought.

" With our material improvement, they learned to understand their
rightful privileges, which, for ages, have been denied them. Civil war was
but a temporary result.

" Our Daimios magnanimously surrendered their principalities, and
their voluntary action was accepted by the General Government. Within a
3'ear a feudal system, firmly established many centuries ago, has been
completely abolished, without firing a gun or shedding a drop of blood.
The<ie wonderful results have been accomplished by the united action of a
Government and people, now pressing jointly forward in the peaceful
paths of progress. ^Vhat country in the middle ages broke down its feudal
system Avithout war ?

" These facts assure us that mental changes in Japan exceed even the
material improvements. By educating our women, we hope to insure
greater intelligence in future generations. With this end in view, our
maidens have already commenced to come to you for their education.

"Japan cannot claim originality as yet, but it will aim to exercise practi-
cal wisdom by adopting the advantages, and avoiding the errors, taught
her by the history of those enlightened nations whose experience is her
teacher.

" Scarcely a year ago, I examined minutely the financial system of the
United States, and, while in Washington, received most valuable assistance
from distinguished officers of your Treasury Department. Every detail
learned was faithfully reported to my Government, and suggestions then
made have been adopted, and some of them are now already in practical
operation.

" In the Department of Public Works, now under my administration, the
progress has been satisfactory. Eailroads are being built, both in the
eastern and western portions of the Empire. Telegraph wires are stretch-
ing over many hundi-ed miles of our territory, and nearly one thousand
miles will be completed within a few months. Light-houses now line our
coasts, and our ship-yards are active. All these assist our civilization, and
we fully acknowledge our indebtedness to you and other foreign nations.

" As Ambassadors and as men, our greatest hope is to return from this
mission laden with results — valuable to our beloved country and calcula-
ted to advance permanently her material and intellectual condition.

" While in duty bound to protect the rights and privileges of our people.

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 15

we shall aim to increase our commerce, and, by a corresponding increase
of our productions, hope to create a healthy basis for this greater activity.

"As distinguished citizens of a great commercial nation, prepared for
business, desirous of participating in the new commercial era now dawning
auspiciously upon the Pacific, Japan offers you her hearty co operation.

" Your modern inventions and results of accumulated knowledge, enable
you to do more in days than our fathers accomplished in years.

" Time, so condensed Avith precious opportunities, we can ill afford to
waste. Japan is anxious to press forward.

" The red disk in the centre of our national flag shall no longer appear
like a wafer over a sealed empire, but henceforth be in fact what it is
designed to be, the noble emblem of the rising sun, moving onward and
upward amid the enlightened nations of the world."

This response was repeatedly interrupted by applause
and cheers, and when he sat down the clapping of hands
was deafening.

The next toast, " Our Relations with Japan," was
responded to by Hon. C. E. DeLong. His remarks were as
follows :

•' Gentlemen : The toast that I am called upon to respond to is one
about which I would most love to speak with freedom, but it is at the same
time the one of all other subjects that I, as American Representative to
the Empire of Japan, am least at liberty to discuss.

" I will venture a few words, however, in the hope of not transgressing
my instructions, and yet, in part, responding to your call.

" What were our relations with that Empire in the past and what are
thev now 1 No intelligent Japanese or American can ever hear the name of
Commodore Perry mentioned with indifference. His gallantry first bore
down the outer walls of seclusion that h;:d walled that Empire in from any
but the most limited communication with other powers, for unknown cen-
turies of time. Under his auspices the foothold was gained which is rev-
olutionizing that land.

" To day what do we 1)ehold ?

" Under the wise administration of His Imperial Majesty, the Tenno, we
see thirty odd millions of people marching at a ' double-quick ' into full
fellowship with foreign states.

" The reign of his Majesty, signalized by its enlightenment, must make
its own history forever illustrious. In this noble and unprecedented work
of reform it is but proper to add that his Majesty finds most able and effec-

16 THE JAPA:N^ESE IX AMERICA.

tual support from the counsel of the noble Ministers of the Empire, some
of whom it is our good fortune to be able to meet and honor in our land.

•'* The mighty change, from our relations as they were to our relations
as they ai-e, is so sudden, so complete, so very wonderful as to be bewilder-
ing.

" Allow me to note a few of the prominent landmarks in this road of
reform upon which this nation is travelling. The Japanese Government
has been centralized by the abolishment of Daimiates, thus resolving its
political condition from one of numberless and comparatively small princi-
palities into a consolidated nation of over thirty millions of people, con-
taining over two millions of men born to the profession of arms, — men
whose martial valor none who knows them doubts, and who are rapidly
being armed, uniformed, and drilled with the best of arms, under the tui-
tion of the best of foreign military teachers.

" But the other day his Majesty received his fleet of ten steam-vessels of
war, including two powerful iron-clads, and in a few days a flying squadron,
composed of three of his Majesty's vessels of war, Avill sail to circumnavi-
gate the globe.

*' A railroad completed and in running order, from Yeddo to Yokohama,
conveved these gentlemen, our noble guests, on the commencement of their
journey.

" Telegraph lines in working order, operated by Japanese operatives, are
already constructed, and more contemplated.

" Light-houses and light-ships have been constructed at all necessary
points along the Japanese coast, where well-kept beacons guide and wel-
come commerce in safety to their ports.

"An Imperial Mint, complete in all of its appointments, has coined mil-
lions of dollars of the precious metals, and is still in active operation.

" A dry-dock has been constructed in which, but the other day, one of the
largest of our vessels of war, the flagship Colorado, was docked with all of
her guns in position, and repairs to her bottom most successfully made.

" Hundreds of the young nobility of Japan are being educated in our o\vTi
country and in Europe. A college, numerously attended, is in full opera-
tion in Yeddo, under the jurisdiction of an American gentleman, assisted
by European and American subordinates.

" Private schools are numerous throughout the Empire, conducted by
foreigners, and with me come five Japanese ladies, seeking foreign culture,
and marking by their advent the promise of a most noble reform.

" Thus I might proceed, and enumerate, at a great length, the evidences
of this nation's progress, but I feel that more extended allusions are not
necessary in the face of the one great fact that meets us here, face to face to-
night, in the presence of this noble array of Japanese dignitaries, represent-
ing, as they do, not only all departments of that Government, but the dig-

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 17

nity of the throne itself— a throne which but yesterday, as it were, was one
of the most secluded and mysterious on earth.

" Who of you all, gentlemen, can fail to see in this sight the harbinger of
greater events still to follow, that shall place Japan, in a very brief future,
in complete alignment with the most advanced nations of the earth ? We
are proud of the past, proud of the present, and confident of the future.
In this spirit I am sure the whole heart of the American nation will
leap up to welcome the noble Ambassadors of our sister nation."

The advent of the Embassy on American soil called
forth a large number of hearty editorials of welcome in
the San Francisco papers, but the most satisfactory one,
on account of its authentic facts, aj)peared in the Daily
Evening Bulletin ; and no apology is needed for intro-
ducing a portion of it in this place.

"Japan is to-day, all the circumstances of her previous
condition considered, the most progressive nation on the
globe. Less than twenty years have elapsed since the first
treaty was made by Perry in 1854, for harbors of refuge
for shipwrecked seamen and supplies for vessels in distress,
and still less since the treaty was made by Minister Harris
for purposes of trade. Prior to the period named, the
penalty of death was visited upon Japanese who had had
intercourse with foreigners, and trade was simply impossi-
ble. The government of the empire was in the hands of a
number of Princes, or Daimios, who nominally ruled in the
name of the Mikado, but practically in their own right.
Each Daimio had his armed retainers, w^ho wore the uni-
forms and marched under the distinctive banners of their
chief. The Mikado was termed the spiritual Emperor, and
had his own court at Kioto ; while the Shogoon, or Tycoon,
which title was hereditary in the Tokagawa family, exer-
cised temporal authority at Yeddo, under the Gorogio, or
Council of State, composed of some of the Daimios of

18 THE JAPAis"ESE IK AMERICA.

hio'hest rank. The distinctions of caste were rigorously-
enforced, and feudalism, in its most ultra form, was pre-
valent throughout the empire. This state of things pre-
vailed less than twenty years ago, since when more radical
changes have taken place than in any other country
known.

'^ Among the principal changes, there has been an entire
revolution in the system of government, the Mikado hav-
ing become tlie active head of the temporal power. The
entire system of feudalism has been swept away, and all
the forces of the empire, both on land and sea, have been
consolidated, and are fed and clothed in European style,
and paid from the national treasury. The Government
possesses a large fleet of war and transport steamers,
among which are the Stojievmll^ and other iron-clads and
rams. It also has constructed a stone dry-dock that will
admit steamers of the largest size, with ways for repairing
smaller vessels, and foundries, machine-shops, and forges,
capable of doing the largest class of work, the machinery
used being the best obtainable in France, at a cost of over
two million dollars. This establishment gives employment
to eighteen hundred men, about a score of them being
foreigners and the remainder Japanese. The government
is also building a railroad, which, when completed, will
extend from Hiogo to Yeddo, a distance of about four
hundred miles.

" The government schools at Yeddo contain about six-
teen hundred pupils, studying foreign languages, three-
fourths of whom are under American teachers, receiving
an English education. The principal of this school and
some twenty sub-teachers are Americans, while many sub-

HISTORY OP THE EMBASSY. 19

jects of Other nations are em2:)loyed in different capacities
in other departments. An American fills the highest office
that a foreigner can hold under the Japanese Government
• — that is, Imperial Councillor, whose duty is to frame
codes of general laws for the empire. Four Americans
compose a scientific commission, to introduce new methods
of agriculture, mechanics, mining, roads, etc., while another
American has been appointed to revise and organize a
system of internal revenue somewhat similar to our own.
In addition, during the last four years, nearly one thou-
sand young men of intelligence and ability have been sent
abroad to study the languages, laws, habits, manufactures,
methods of government, and all other matters appertaining
to western civilization, the greater part of which is to be
introduced into Japan.

" Japan, to-day, has a population of thirty-five millions,
or within a few millions of that of the United States.
Unlike the Chinese, its people readily make changes in
clothing, food, manufactures, and modes of living, when
they see improvement therein. They are, as a race, impul-
sive, highly intelligent, brave to rashness, cleanly in their
habits, have a high sense of personal honor, and are uni-
versally polite, from the highest dignitary to the lowest
in the land, and withal are kindly disposed toward foreign-
ers, especially Americans. Unlike the Chinese, again, the
people of Japan are warmly attached to their country, and
will not emigrate on Coolie contracts, the thirst for knowl-
edge being the incentive of those who seek foreign lands.
A Japanese who can speak and write foreign languages,
the English in particular, is assured of profitable employ-
ment under his Government, with favorable prospects of

20 THE JAPANESE IK AIMERICA.

promotion. The law that forbade marriages between the
noble and the common classes has been repealed, with the
effect to elevate the marriage ties, by improving the moral
and social status of woman. The barriers of caste that al-
lowed nobles only to bear arms, or to hold military or civic
office, have been modified so that all classes, except the tan-
ners, whose occupation is deemed unclean, are now eligible.

"Another important change made has been the withdrawal
of Government assistance to the Buddhist religion, leaving
it to continue only through the voluntary support of the
people. The priests, having no income, have been advised
by the Government to enter the army as soldiers, so that
Sintooism, which is only a moral code, is all the religion
left for the guidance of the people. This circumstance
seems to prepare the way for the introduction of Christian-
ity, for it is now well-known that the repressive measures
taken by the Japanese Government against it, were mainly
caused by its interference with the temporal authority.
The Embassy that is about to visit the United States and
Europe, will see for themselves that Christianity does not
necessarily interfere with good government, either repub-
lican or monarchical; and the young men studying abroad,
on their return will take with them additional proof of this,
and perhaps themselves be the means of introducing the
belief in many places where no foreign missionary could
reach. It needs only that patience and forbearance be ex-
ercised by foreigners in this matter, so as not to excite
undue anxiety in the minds of the opponents of Christianity,
to insure for it the same tolerant recognition which is ac-
corded all religions in America.

" The present situation of Japan appeals strongly to all

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 21

well-wishers to the race, that no impediments nor difficulty,
either social, moral, political, or religious, be placed in the
way of her progress. We need only show her people the
effects of western civilization, in a kindly and courteous
spirit, without needlessly exciting prejudices in so doing.
The natural intelligence of the Japanese, which has no
superior, will satisfy itself, and work out the problem of
what to introduce in their own country, to a conclusion
satisfactory to all concerned."

Before leaving the Pacific coast, an incident occurred
which must not be omitted in this place. Charles Wolcott
Brooks, Esq., the Japanese Consul in San Francisco, was
officially informed by the Ministers, that his administration
of their affiiirs had been so faithful, his salary should be in-
creased to the extent of two thousand of Mexican dollars,
and that they were anxious to have him accompany them
on their mission to Europe,— so that he thus became a
member of the Embassy. In view of the fact that the
Embassy is accredited to all the Treaty Powers, it might
seem strange to some that an American was selected to
accompany the mission, but it should be recollected that
Mr. Brooks had been eighteen years in the employ of the
Japanese Government, six years as commercial agent, and
twelve years as Consul.

The very last act performed by the Embassy in San
Francisco, was to sign and cause to be published the fol-
lowing card of acknowledgment — which was signed by all
the Ambassadors :

" The undersigned, since their arrival in the city of San
Francisco, having received from the officials of the State,
city, and county alike, and also from all classes of the peo-

22 THE JAPANESE IX AMERICA.

pie with whom they have the honor to come in contact,
the most kind attention and generous hospitality, beg leave
respectfully to return their most sincere thanks, with their
assurances that it will aiFord them great pleasure to recip-
rocate the same whenever opportunity offers."

The Embassy left San Francisco by railway on the 31st
of January, and their first stopping-place was Sacramento,
where they became the guests of the Legislature, and on
the eyening of February 1st were treated to a banquet,
on which occasion Governor Ito delivered the following
speech :

" In acknowledging the generous hospitality of your welcome, we feel
from the depths of grateful hearts the honor conferred upon us. His Ma-
jesty our Emperor having the noble desire to increase our prosperity and
extend our commercial relations with friendly powers, has sent us to your
country on this important mission. Our people require much that you can
furnish us, and we shall look largely to our nearest enlightened neighbors
for those supplies of which we stand in need,. The object of our mission
is to inspect and examine into the various mechanic arts and sciences which
have assisted your country in gaining the present high position she occu-
pies before the world. We come to study your strength, that, by adopting
wisely your better ways, we may hereafter be stronger ourselves. We shall
require your mechanics to teach our people many things, and the more
our intercourse increases the more we shall call upon you. We shall labor
to place Japan on an equal basis, in the future, with those countries whose
modern civilization is now our guide. The friendly intercourse of com-
merce will necessai'ily draw us closer together, and the State of California
will be among the first to receive such benefits as must necessarily flow
from more intimate relations. Notwithstanding the various customs,
manners, and institutions of the different nations, we are all members
of one large human family, and under control of the same Almighty
Being, and we believe it is our common destiny to reach a yet nobler civil-
ization than the world has yet seen. Now, I am sure that you are the
advocates of these principles ; and these hospitalities, so generously offered,
we receive as a compliment to our nation, and as the public expression of
these magnanimous sentiments. With thankful hearts, therefore, let us
drink to a closer friendship between our countries — one whose benefits shall
be mutual and lasting."

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 23

The Embassy left Sacramento on the 31st of January;
and, on reaching Salt Lake City on the 4th of February,
they were blockaded by the snow, and compelled to remain
at that place until the 21st of February. During their so-
journ there they were comfortably housed, and were treated
with great kindness by the authorities and citizens. A
banquet was given to the Embassy in that place, and a
toast was offered by the Chief Ambassador in the follow-
ing words : " On this, the first day of the fifth year of the
reign of the Emperor, I propose the health of the President
of the United States." Of course, in this connection we
must allude to the famous Mormon leader, Brigam Young,
but this we do in the language of one of the local papers, as
follows :

" One of the principal members of the Japanese Embassy
was waited upon yesterday by a messenger from the
* Prophet Brigham,' requesting the Oriental Prince to
call on the Western Prophet. His Highness remarked
that it was not etiquette in Japan for persons of his rank,
when among strangers, to make calls, but awaited the calls
of people among whom they may be sojourning.

" The Prophet's messenger replied that the Seer and Rev-
el ator was very anxious to see the representatives of His
Majesty, but was sorry to admit that it was impossible for
him to do so immediately. The Royal Ambassador in-
quired why the Prophet could not call ? To this the mes-
senger replied that the Prophet was unwillingly confined
to his room in charge of a Federal ofiicer. The Prince saw
the point at once, and, with a frown, said : ' We came to
the United States to see the President of this great nation ;
we do not know how he would like for us to call on a man

24 THE JAPAi^"ESE IN AMERICA.

who had broken the laws of his country and was under
arrest.' "

Their next stopping-place was Chicago, where they re-
mained less than two days, and were treated with warm
hospitality; and that visit they commemorated by pre-
senting to the Mayor the sum of live thousand dollars, for
the benefit of the poor of that lately devastated city.

The correspondence on that occasion was as follows :

'' Secretary's Office of the ^

Japanese Embassy, J-
'^ Chicago, Feb. 27, 1872. J
"To His Excellency J, Medill^ Mayor of the City of
Chicago :

" Sir : Permit us to add a small offering to the relief fund
which the benevolent of your nation have donated to alle-
viate the distress of those of your people who suffered by
the late fire. Kindly accept and dispose of it as your best
judgment may dictate. With many thanks for your kind
civilities, we remain yours respectfully,
*' Sionii Tomomi Iwakura,

Ambassador Extraordinary of Japan.
Jussammi Takayossi Kido,

Vice- Ambassador Extraordinary.
Jussammi Tossimitsi Okubo,

Vice- A m bassador Extraordinary.
Jushie HiROBUMiE Ito,

Vice- Ambassador Extraordinary.
Jushie Massonka Yamagutsi,

Vice- A m bassador Extraordinary.'*'*

His honor returned the following reply :

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 25

" To Sionii Ihmomi IioaJcura, Jussammi TaJcayossi Ki-
do, and others, of the Japanese Embassy :

" Gentlemen : I have the honor to acknowledge the re-
ceipt of $5,000 from the Embassy of His Imperial Majesty,
of which you are the Chief Envoys, at the hands of Mr.
Charles W. Brooks, Consul of Japan at San Francisco,
donated to alleviate the distress of our citizens who suffered
by the late calamitous conflagration. Permit me, in behalf
"of the people of Chicago, to tender you their most grateful
thanks for this wholly unexpected and munificent gift.
They will esteem it as an additional proof that the great
nation you represent has enrolled itself among the pro-
gressive and civilized powers of the earth, as well as a
lively testimonial of the personal sympathy of your Em-
bassy for the misfortune of this portion of your American
friends. Respectfully yours,

" Joseph Medill, MayorP

They left Chicago on the 27th of February and arrived
in Washington on the 29th following.

At this point it becomes necessary for us to pause for a
moment, to glance at the action of the Government, in
connection with the Embassy. On the 30th of January
the Congress of the United States made an appropriation
of fifty thousand dollars for the purpose of entertaining the
Embassy while in this country, and on the next day Mr.
Mori wrote to the Secretary of State as follows : " In view
of the action which the Congress of the United States has
been pleased to take in regard to the Japanese Embassy,
now on its way to the Capital, I deem it my duty, as it is
certainly my pleasure, to tender my personal and ofiicial
acknoAvledgments. It is not on account of the amount of

2

26 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

money appropriated, but the spirit which prompted the
measure, which will gratify the Teimo of Japan, and my
countrymen generally. I can assure you, sir, that this
princely act will be fully appreciated, and will result, I
trust, in making perennial the cordial friendship which
now exists between the United States and the Empire of
Japan."

In a subsequent dispatch which Mr. Mori sent to his
Government on the 18th of February, he thus alludes to the
action of the American Government, and gives his views
as to how the money appropriated by Congress should be
spent: "Owing to the 'snow blockade' on the Pacific
Railroad, the Embassy has not yet arrived in Washington,
and it is impossible to say how long the delay may con-
tinue. It affords me pleasure to inform you, however, that
the Government here has made every preparation for ex-
tending a warm welcome to the Embassy. The President
and Secretary of State have both exerted themselves in
the matter, and a prominent person. General William
Myers, has been selected to carry out the wishes of the
Government. . . . With regard to the question as
to how the money appropriated by Congress shall be ex-
pended, I have intimated to the American Secretary of
State, that it should not be used in paying the hotel-bills
of the Embassy, but simply for carrying out any plans
that may be devised for their entertainment."

The appropriation made by Congress was sanctioned
with great unanimity ; but before their final action, the
honorable Members of the Committees of both Houses,
on Foreign Affairs and Appropriations, desired some au-
thentic particulars about the present condition of Japan,

HISTOEY OF THE EMBASSY. 2?

when, under Mr. Mori's direction, the following notes were
prepared :

The influences which have been disseminated among the
nations of the East by the various interests of the w^est-
ern nations, have hitherto been injurious rather than bene-
ficial. The people of Japan, as well as all in the Orient,
feel the need of increased light in regard to the more ele-
vated interests of humanity ; and this is the chief reason
w^hy Mr. Mori cherishes a strong desire to do all he can for
the education of his people.

The influences alluded to have also done much to keep
back from the people of Japan very much of that true
spirit of civilization, so eminently characteristic of Amer-
ica. And the fact seems now to be generally acknowl-
edged that the Japanese people not only desire to follow,
as far as possible, in all educational and political affiiirs,
the example of the Americans, but that they look upon
them as their best friends, among the nations of the globe.
A prominent idea with the educated classes of Japan is,
that in the very ship which took Commodore M. C. Perry
to Japan in 1852, were the germs of Christianity, civiliza-
tion, and desire for equality and political freedom, and
that the seed then planted has been steadily growing from
that to the present time.

At first, the Japanese were, from their ignorance of the
outer world, unwilling to open their ports to foreigners, or
to receive them in their country; but as they began to
see and understand, they gradually yielded up their preju-
dices. A new spirit animated them, and it was this which
brought them to the Revolution from which they have
recently emerged.

28 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

The first concession made by the Japanese was an ac-
knowledgment of the darkness in which they were, and of
the superior character of foreign institutions; and the im-
mediate result was that they desired to cement a closer
friendship with foreign governments. They naturally
looked upon the United States as occupying the first
rank. Then they also wished to consolidate the various
internal interests of Japan.

The late Tycoon was favorably disposed, but, not being
the legitimate head of the nation, the people were against
him, did not support him, and hence he was powerless,
and in due time resigned the Tycoonite. He was not the
supreme ruler, because that position belonged to the he-
reditary Emperor.

The great party which opposed the Tycoon consisted
of the Daimios — the Feudal or Provincial Princes — and a
bitter rivalry existed between them. Both were willing
to civilize Japan to some extent, but the Tycoon wished
to civilize his followers alone, and the Daimios were- anx-
ious to secure the same end for their followers. While
thus interfering with each other, both of these parties
were, in reality, coming into a new light. They soon saw
the necessity of uniting their interests, and the present
movements now going on in Japan are the result of the
co-operation of these two elements.

To help his cause, the Tycoon sent students abroad to
be educated; and the Daimios, with the same object in
view, also sent some of their followers abroad. Hence it
was that the Japanese were soon found scattered among
the colleges and seminaries of the United States and
Europe, and representatives of both parties — long since

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 29

reconciled— are now in Washington. Originally, there
were leaders in both parties who looked into the future,
and did all they could to secure unity of action, and it was
the late Revolution which settled the question of consoli-
dation.

Ever since the Japanese began to throw aside the old
restrictions, commerce has been steadily increasing, and
the present disposition of the Government is to have the
freest possible intercourse with all the world. It was the
great ignorance which prevailed among the people of
Japan, which prevented the development of commerce.
The channel is now open, and all that is wanted is to
have the people sail into it with determination.

The great aim is now to educate and elevate the people.
The system of caste has already been abolished. The
middle classes, which were formerly kept back by heredi-
tary pride, are now turning their attention and energies to
industrial pursuits. Among the developments which are
now going on in Japan, may be mentioned the building of
railroads, the establishment of telegraphs, navy-yards,
arsenals, and the building of steamships. By competent
scholars, English books, in great numbers, are being trans-
lated into the Japanese language ; and newspapers — even
daily journals — are becoming a necessity. Hospitals
managed according to Western ideas have been estab-
lished ; also, institutions for the employment of the poor,
and many successful schools. And, by way of showing the
zeal of some of the native scholars, it may be stated that
there is one man in Yeddo who has educated at his own
house not less than two thousand Japanese children, and
to-day has a school of three hundred and fifty pupils.

30 THE JAPAlN^ESE IK AMERICA.

The intelligent people of the Empire are hungering and
thirsting after knowledge, and the study of the English
language is considered the best means for accomplishing
the end which is so strongly desired.

On the 29th of February, the Japanese Embassy arrived
in Washington City; and at the railway station, the
Governor of the Territory of Columbia, Hon. Henry D.
Cooke, with several officials, as well as the Japanese Minister
and many Japanese students, w^ere in waiting to receive
them ; and after the proper arrangements had been made,
the Governor delivered the following speech of welcome:

" I take very great pleasure in extending to you and your associates a
hearty and sincere welcome to the capital of this country. I trust that
your visit here may not only be agreeable to you personally, but that it
may result in closer ties and more intimate relations between our two
countries. I extend to you, on behalf of the citizens of the District,
its cordial hospitalities. I have now the pleasure of introducing to you
General ]\Iyers, of the army, who has been intrusted with the pleasant
duty of providing for your comfort during your visit ; and I beg also to
present General Chipman, the Kepresentative of this District in the Con-
gress of the United States."

The address was interpreted by Mr. Mori, to which the
following response w^as made by the Chief Ambassador
(Mr. Mori interpreting) :

" I thank 3'ou kindly for your remarks and expressions, and have no
doubt but the sentiments expressed will be appreciated and reciprocated.
I am very glad at having arrived safe, and having met with no accident.
I have been informed by Mr. Mori that you have been here some time
awaiting our arrival. I thank you very much for taking this trouble, and
feel very much impressed by this reception."

The preliminaries of the reception and formal welcome
over, the visitors were escorted to carriages, and proceeded
to their headquarters, at the Arlington Hotel. Among

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 31

the students assembled to greet the ambassadors were
three particularly good English scholars, who were in
Paris, and two of whom were about to return to Japan,
when they were summoned by telegram from San Fran-
cisco, to report themselves in Washington, to accompany
the Embassy in their going round the world.

On Monday, the 4th day of March, at noon, the Embassy
had an audience with the President of the United States,
Ulysses S. Grant, which was admirably arranged ; and
when the proper moment arrived, the Prime Minister read
from a Japanese manuscript the following address of their
Excellencies, the Ambassadors from Japan :

" His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, our most august sovereign, has
sought, since the achievement of our national reconstruction, to attain a
more perfect organization in the administrative powers of his Govei-nment.
He has studied with interest the results attained by Western nations, and
having a sincere desire to establish permanent and friendly relations with
foreign powers on a still closer footing, has commissioned us his ambas-
sadors extraordinary to all powers having treaty with Japan. Upon the
soil of your country we first present our credentials, delivering to you
personally the letter of our august sovereign at this public official
audience,"

Minister Iwakura here presented to the President their
credential letter, folded in an envelope some two feet long
and six inches wide, and curiously wrought with flowers
of gold. The following is the text of the letter

THE LETTER OE THE EMPEROR.

[Official Translation.]

" MouTSOUKiTO, Emperor of Japan, etc., to the President of the

United States of America.
" Our Good Brother and Faithful Friend, Greeting :

" Mr. President : — Whereas, since our accession by the blessing of
Heaven to the sacred throne on which our ancestors reigned from time

32 THE JAPANESE IN" AMERICA.

immemorial, we have not despatched any embassy to the courts and
Governments of friendly countries: We have thought fit to select our
trusty and honored Minister Sionii Tomomi Iwakura, the Junior Prime
Minister, as Ambassador Extraordinary, and have associated with hira
lussammi Takayossi Kido, Member of the Privy Council; lussammi
Tossimitsi Okubo, Minister of Finance; lushie Hirobumie Ito, Acting
Minister of Public AVorks, and lushie Massouha Yamugutsi, Assistant
Minister for Foreign Affairs, Associate Ambassadors Extraordinary, and
invested them with full powers to proceed to the Government of the United
States, as well as to other Governments, in order to declare our cordial
friendship, and to place the peaceful relations between our respective
nations on a firmer and broader basis.

" The period for revising the treaties now existing between ourselves
and the United States, is less than one year distant. We expect and in-
tend to reform and improve the same so as to stand upon a similar footing
with the most enlightened nations, and to attain the full development of
public right and interest. The civilization and institutions of Japan are
so different from those of other countries, that we cannot expect to reach
the desired end at once.

"It is our purpose to select from the various institutions prevailing
among enlightened nations such as are best suited to our present condi-
tion, and adopt them, in gradual reforms and improvements of our policy
and customs, so as to be upon an equality with them.

" With this object, we desire to fully disclose to the United States Govern-
ment the condition of affairs in our Empire, and to consult upon the
means of giving greater efiiciency to our institutions, at present and in the
future ; and as soon as the said Embassy returns home we will consider
about the revision of the treaties, and accomplish what we have expected
and intended.

" The Ministers who compose this Embassy have our confidence and
esteem: We request you to favor them with full credence and due regard ;
and we earnestly pray for your continued health and happiness, and for
the peace and prosperity of your great Eepublic.

" In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hand and the great seal of
our Empire, at our palace, in the city of Tokio, this 4th of eleventh month
of fourth year of Meiji.

" Your affectionate brother and friend,

"MOUTSOUKITO.

" Juicnii Sanetonii Sakjo,

"Prime Minister'''

After this ceremony, the Mmister resumed, and con-
cluded his address as follows :

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 33

" The objects of the mission with which we are charged by our Gov-
ernment are somewhat set forth in this letter. We are authorized to
consult Avith your Government on all international questions, directing our
efforts to promote and develop wider commercial relations and draw into
closer bonds the strong friendship already existing between our respective
peoples. Thus we hope to gain fresh impulse in the paths of progress,
gaining good from every form of civilization. This we shall aim to do
while in the exercise of strict integrity to our own national interests, so trust-
ingly confided by a generous sovereign, and shall earnestly hope to receive
your kind co-operation in facilitating the task assigned us by our Govern-
ment. "VVe gladly avail ourselves of this happy meeting to convey personally
to your Excellency our sincere wishes for your continued prosperity and
happiness, and, as national representatives, we extend the same wish to all
the people of the United States."

With the last words of the above he bowed very low,
and with great dignity stepped back a single pace.

The President of the United States then read to the
Ambassadors the following reply : —

" Gentlemen : I am gratified that this country and that my adminis-
tration will be distinguished in history as the first which has received an
Embassy from the nation with which the United States was the first to es-
tablish diplomatic and commercial intercourse. The objects which you
say have given rise to your mission do honor to the intelligence and wisdom
of your sovereign, and reflect credit on you in having been chosen as the
instruments for carrying them into effect. The time must be regarded as
gone, never to return, when any nation can keep apart from all others, and
expect to enjoy the prosperity and happiness which depend more or less
upon the mutual adoption of improvements, not only in the science of
government, but in those other sciences and arts which contribute to the
dignity of mankind, and national wealth and power. Though Japan is
one of the most ancient of oi'ganized communities and the United States
rank among the most recent, we flatter ourselves that we have made some
improvements upon the political institutions of the nations from which, we
are descended. Our experience leads us to believe that the wealth, the
power, and the happiness of a people are advanced by the encouragement
of trade and commercial intercourse with other powers, by the elevation
and dignity of labor, by the practical adaptation of science to the manu-
factures and the arts, by increased facilities of frequent and rapid commu-
nication between different parts of the country, by the encouragement of
immigration, which brings with it the varied habits and diverse genius and

2*

34 THE JAPAN"ESE IK AMERICA.

industry of other lands, bv a free press, by freedom of thought and of
conscience, and a liberal toleration in matters of religion, not only to citi-
zens, but to all foreigners resident among us. It will be a pleasure to us
to enter upon that consultation upon international questions in which you
say you are authorized to engage. The improvement of the commercial
relations between our respective countries is important and desirable, and
cannot fail to strengthen the bonds wliich unite us. I will heartily co-ope-
rate in so desirable an object. Your kind wishes for me personally, gentle-
men, are cordially reciprocated. I trust that your abode with us may be
agreeable to you, and may contribute to a more intimate acquaintance
and intercourse between our respective peoples."

The President next introduced each member of his Cabi-
net by name to the Ambassadors. The officers of the va-
rious Departments were then called forward, commencing
with the Department of State,

After these introductions were over, the President offered
liis arm to Prime Minister Iwakura, and, with the Embassy,
the Cabinet officers, and a few others, proceeded to the
Blue Room.

Here were stationed several ladies.

After formal introductions had been made to the ladies,
Mrs. Grant, Mr. Mori acting as interpreter, held a very pleas-
ant conversation with Mr. Iwakura and other members of
the Embassy. They all remained in the Blue Room for
half an hour, and then withdrew, bowing very low to the
ladies, and not averting their faces until they were in the
main corridor of the Executive Mansion.

They repaired at once to the Arlington, to prepare for a
splendid social entertainment afforded them in the evening
at the residence of Hon. James Brooks. This dinner was
given by Mr. Brooks as a recognition of the handsome
courtesies extended to him during his visit in Japan, and
was one of the most elegant entertainments ever given in
Washinscton.

HISTOEY OF THE EMBASSY. 85

On Wednesday, the 6th, of March, the Congress of the
United States, by special invitation, gave the Japanese Em-
bassy a formal reception. Long before the appointed horn*
the galleries of the House of Representatives were filled to
their utmost capacity ; and when, at eleven o'clock, the
Embassy arrived at the Capitol, the Chief Ambassador
was escorted by the Hon. Nathaniel P. Banks, Chairman
of the Committee of Foreign Affairs, and. the other Am-
bassadors by the remaining members of the same Com-
mittee. As they entered the hall, the members and clerks
rose and received them standing, and the visitors were es-
corted to the semicircle in front of the Speaker's desk, the
chief Ambassadors taking positions nearest the desk, and
the attaches in the- rear of them. Amid profound silence,
General Banks then introduced the distinguished visitors,
and as each name was mentioned the person designated
bowed low. A moment afterward, the Hon. James G.
Blaine, Speaker of the House of Representatives, addressed
the Embassy as follows :

" Your Excellencies : On behalf of the House of Representatives I
welcome your Imperial Embassy to this hall. The reception whiQh is thus
extended to you so unanimously and so cordially by the members of this
body is significant of the interest which our whole people feel in the
rapidly developing relations between the Japanese Empire and the Amer-
ican Republic

" The course of migration for the human race has for many centuries
been steadily westward — a course always marked by conquest, and too often
by rapine. Reaching the boundary of our continent, we encountered a re-
turning tide from your country setting eastward, seeking, not the tropliies
of war, but the more shining victories of peace ; and these two currents of
population appropriately meet and mingle on the shores of the great Pa-
cific Sea. It will be my pleasure to present to you personally tlie repre-
sentatives of the people ; and I beg to assure you, for them and for myself,
that during your stay at our capital you will b^ at all times welcome to the
privileges and courtesies of this floor."

36 THE JAPANESE IJST AMEKICA.

At the close of the Speaker's address the Chief Ambas-
sador was introduced, and deliberately unrolling a parch-
ment, he proceeded to read an address in his native
tongue.

At the conclusion of this address, which was delivered
in a clear and distinct, though not powerful, voice, and with
a peculiar and somewhat monotonous intonation, which
made the strange scene the more striking. General Banks,
at the request of the Prince, read the following translation
of the Chief Ambassador's address, which he requested
might be spread upon the journal of the House.

"3/r. Speaker, and Honorable Members of the House of Representatives of
the United States :

" On behalf of the Ambassadors of Japan, our sovereign, and the people
whom we represent, we tender to you our sincere thanks and warmest
friendship. We fully appreciate the disting-uished honor which places us,
face to face, in presence ot that mighty power which rules the great Amer-
ican Republic,

* Governments are strong when built upon the hearts of an enlightened
people. We came for enlightenment, and gladly find it here. Journeying
eastward from the empire of sunrise toward the sun-rising, Ave behold a new
sunrise beyond the one we before enjoyed.

" New knowledge rises daily before us, and when a completed trip shall
shall have passed in review, an encircled globe shall gather together our
treasures of knowledge; remembering that however we have advanced
toward the sources of light, each onward move has revealed a further step
beyond. The Government of Japan already appreciates the value of an
enlightened policy toward itself and all nations ; but our mutual assur-
ances on our return will confirm to the people at large the friendliness of
feeling so frequently expressed heretofore, and now so generously ex-
hibited to this Embassy.

" In the future an extended commerce will unite our national interests in
a thousand forms, as drops of water will commingle, flowing from our sev-
eral rivers to that common ocean that divides our countries.

"Let us express the hope that our national friendship may be as difficult
to sunder or cftrange as to divide the once blended drops composing our
common Pacific Ocean."

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 37

This concluded, the Embassy faced the body of the
Representatives, and the latter filed past and were severally
introduced. The Hon. Schuyler Colfax, Vice-President of
the United States and President of the Senate, honored
the occasion with his presence, and was the first dignitary
presented to the Embassy ; and the Hon. Henry L. Dawes,
on behalf of the Representatives, took occasion to say that
they had all listened with great pleasure to the speech
delivered by the Ambassador ; after which the entire body
paid an informal visit to the Chamber of the United States
Senate, then in session, and were next shown about the
Capitol building generally. During the remainder of their
stay in Washington, the members of the Embassy were
constantly engaged in attending to their business with the
Government or in accepting hospitalities, and they were to
leave the Metropolis only to enjoy a continuous series of
welcoming entertainments in the cities of the North, to
which they were invited by many delegations of distin-
guished gentlemen.

Having now seen that the Japanese Embassy is in the
hands of the American Government, and that they are
visiting the institutions of the nation, under official escort,
and that they are being hospitably entertained by corporate
bodies in all the leading cities on the Atlantic coast, we
proceed to give a few particulars of a personal character.

And first, as to the Chief Ambassador, Tomomi Iwakura.
He was born in 1825, and is a man of superior abilities.
He does not speak English, but has manifested his regard
for education by sending three of his sons to be educated
in this country. He is the Left-hand President of
His Japanese Imperial Majesty's Ministry — Sandeo being

38 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

the Right-hand President — and is, in fact, the principal
working executive offtcer of the Japanese Government. His
visit confers the same degree of honor from Japan, as the
visit in person of the Premier of Great Britain would con-
fer from that power. He was an inveterate opponent of
the Tycoon in the late war, and was for several years
held as a prisoner by the Tycoon's Government. To him,
more than any other man, is due the late revolution and its
wonderful results, and he now wields a corresponding in-
fluence in the Japanese Ministry.

His first public audience at Court was m December,
1858. He was appointed to the Privy Council in Decem-
ber, 1863, soon after the formation of the present Govern-
ment. He was elected Vice-President of the Ministry
(Cabinet) January 9, 1868. The title of " Sionii," the sec-
ond honorary grade of the imperial order, was conferred
upon him, February, 1869. This is the first title below the
imperial title. On the 26th day of September, 1869, the
Emperor issued the following decree :

"ToMOMi, — Being zealous in strengthening the Imperial
authority throughout our Empire, you have at length
succeeded in establishing our Government in its present
form, and have taken ujDon yourself this great task of ad-
ministration.

" You have, indeed, labored industriously, vigorously,
and nobly at this difficult task, and your plans and sug-
gestions have always been suited to the requirements of
our Empire. You are the founder of our present style
of Government, and the indispensable member of my
councils. As I am heartily gratified with your distin-
guished merit, it is my pleasure to bestow upon you the

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 39

aiigmental salary perpetually, without chance of discon-
tinuation.

" In future I expect to rely upon your assistance as much
as I have in the past."

He was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, July, 1871,
and raised to the rank of Junior Prime Minister, October,
1871, and is now Ambassador Extraordinary, charged with
the most important mission that has ever left the shores
of Japan, and one more important than any which ever
reached our shores from any Eastern nation.

During: his visit to San Francisco, Consul Brooks had
two imperial photographs taken of His Excellency, one of
them in his official Japanese costume, and one in the pre-
vailing American dress. When copies of these portraits
were presented to Mr. Mori in Washington, he had them
put into one frame, side by side, and hung up in the
guest-chamber of the Legation ; and, in view of the great
changes now going on in the East, had them labelled with
these words in Japanese characters — Ancient and Modern
Japan.

With regard to the four associate Ambassadors, we are
only able at present to give the following particulars :

Takayossi Kido is of the clan Choshien, which holds the
lower end of the Island of Nipon, commanding the Straits
of Simonoseky. This was one of the first clans to raise the
standard of revolt against the Tycoon, and Kido was one
of the chief emissaries under Iwakura for the organizing
of the army, uniting the other clans in the cause. Since
the revolution he has been made a member of the Privy
Council. He is thirty-nine years of age, was a leading man
before the revolution, but since that event has been held in

40 THE JAPANESE IX AMERICA.

greater esteem. He does not speak English, and has never
before been out of Japan. Tossimitsi Okubo is forty-three
years old, and belongs to the warlike clan of Satsma, which
holds the Loo Choo group and the south end of Kanchin. He
is now Chief Minister of Finance. His knowledge of English
is very limited, and he has never before been out of Japan.

It is said of him that upon news of a defeat in the
first battle of the revolution (which was the outgrowth of
600 years, so slow do great movements ripen in Japan)
some one asked in the General Council what they should
do with themselves and the Mikado. Okubo replied, "■ Let
us expect no more than to die here ; but while a Satsma
lives, the usurpation of the Tycoon will be resisted." It
was Okubo's soldiers that at last turned the battle and
defeated the Tycoon.

Hirobumi Ito is said to be thirty-two years of age, speaks
English fluently, is a close observer of men and things,
visited England about ten years ago, and took part in
negotiating the Treaty which called for the payment of
$3,000,000 to the four Powers, and his present visit is the
second he has made to this country. He was formerly
Governor of Hiogo and Kobe ; put in operation the present
system of revenue in Japan ; and, as Acting Minister of
Public Works, he has been intrusted with authority to
purchase or order to be built and put in operation a great
variety of things having reference to the material pros-
perity of his country. His friendship for America and
American institutions is conspicuous, and during his former
visit to Washington he made many warm personal friends.

Massouka Yamagutsi is the fifth Ambassador ; he is the
Assistant Minister of Foreign Affairs, and about thirty-four

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 41

years old ; has some knowledge of international law ; and
is recognized as a man of ability. He does not speak Eng-
lish, and has never been out of Japan before.

The honorable Commissioners, who form a part of the
Embassy, are all men of high rank in the Army and Civil
List of Japan, and their business is to inquire into what-
ever may be of advantage, in the special departments of the
Government to which they are attached.

It is now our duty, and most certainly our pleasure, to
make a special allusion to Jugoi Arinori Mori, Chargt
iV Affaires from Japan in Washington, to whom was assigned
the task of receiving and providing for the comfort of his
diplomatic associates during their sojourn in America. He
was born in the southern part of Japan, and is not yet tw^enty-
five years old. He was among the first Japanese students
sent to England to be educated, and, after remaining in
London two years, he returned to Japan. He took a lead-
ing part in the Home Parliament after the late revolution,
and was afterward, on account of his talents and Western
education, appointed Minister to this country — having been
the first to receive a diplomatic mission from his Govern-
ment.

He is greatly interested in the progress of knowledge,
earnest and desirous of promoting the advancement of his
country in all good things. By his intercourse with our
official representatives, and by his visits to different parts of
the country, he has gained the confidence and esteem of
very many distinguished Americans.

While occupying a seat in the National Legislature of
his country, Mr. Mori introduced a proposition to abolish
the ancient custom of wearing two swords, by one of the

42 THE JAPA:S"ESE IIT AMERICA.

great privileged classes; for a time the measure met with
determined hostility, but was subsequently successful ; and
the following letter connected with this subject, addressed
to the Hon. Wm. W. Belknaj^, Secretary of War, by Mr.
Mori, will be read with interest :

" I have the honor to ask your acceptance of the ac-
companying Japanese sword, to be deposited in the
Military Museum attached to your Department. It has
hitherto been worn by one of the provincial officials of
Japan, who is now travelling in this country. He brought
it with him, because of his former devotion to the ancient
custom of wearing that weapon in duplicate ; but having,
since his arrival here, been convinced of the useiessness of
that custom, he thought proper to present the weapon to me.
And if you will pardon me, I may add that the significance
of this act on the part of my friend (Mr. Kondo) is enhanced
by the fact that the original proposition for abolishing the
wearing of two swords was submitted in the Jaj^anese
Parliament by myself, and that Mr. Kondo was one of those
who, at that time, dejDrecated my proposition. It may be
well enough for me to add that the blade of this sword was
manufactured more than three hundred years ago, and that
the metal is considered far more valuable than that em-
ployed in modern times."

Some time ago, when Professor Joseph Henry, of the
Smithsonian Institution, was informed that the Japanese
Government had been compelled to paj^ to the United
States an indemnity of about seven hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, on the strength of what many think au
unjust claim, and that this money was held by the Depart-
ment of State, and not deposited in the Treasury, he in-

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 43

augurated a plan for the restoration of the money. He
consulted with Mr. Mori, and when that gentleman earnestly-
expressed the hope that the money, if returned, should be
devoted exclusively to educational purposes, the Professor
at once addressed a letter to the Joint Committee on the
Library of Congress, setting forth his views at considerable
length ; and as that letter is both interesting and valuable,
we are glad to print it, as follows :

" Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, Ja/i. lO^A, 1872.

To the Joint Committee on the

Library of Congress, Capitol :

" Gentlemen : The Smithsonian Institution, in its mission for the
* increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,' has entered into friendly
relations with the authorities of Japan for the exchange of specimens of
natural history and ethnology, and for the establishment of meteorological,
magnetic, and other physical observations. In relation to these matters, I
have had frequent intercourse with Mr. A. Mori, the Japanese Minister,
and have been informed as to his various plans for elevating the intellectual
condition of his people. One of the most important of these is the estab-
lishment of a National Institution in the city of Jeddo for educational pur-
poses, to be furnished with a Library in which shall be represented the
science and literature of Western Europe and the United States, with
specimens, apparatus, and models, to fully illustrate all the principles of
abstract science, as well as their application to the practical uses of life.

" This Institution is designed to be a great central university, and to
serve as a normal school, in which teachers may finish their education as
rapidly as a knowledge of the English language is disseminated through-
out the country.

" In view of the intimate relations existing between the United States
and Japan, and the manner in which the money known as the Indemnity
Fund has been obtained, it has been. suggested that this might with pro-
priety be appropriated by Congress, for the benefit of the proposed Institu-
tion ; and it is the 'object of this letter to respectfully present this suggestion
to you for your consideration, and through you, should it meet your appro-
bation, to the Congress of the United States.

'■ I may be allowed to say, in favor of the suggestion, that its adoption
would indicate a proper appreciation of the sentiments entertained by the
Japanese people wdth regard to the character and institutions of our coun-

44 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

try, and be a manifestation of a desire on our part to encourage and aid
them in the remarkable efforts they are now making to become imbued
with the principles and habits of modern civilization. Furthermore, it
would tend, beyond anything else, to show that in our intercourse with
them we are actuated by other and higher motives than those which per-
tain to commercial benefits merely, and strengthen the unreserved confi-
dence with which they are now receiving our advice and adopting our
instruction.

" I have the honor to be, very respectfully,
" Your obedient servant,
(Signed) "Joseph Henry, Sect. S. Inst."

The gentlemen of that Committee were favorably im-
pressed with the proposition, but referred it to the Com-
mittee on Foreign Affairs, w^hich was equally favorable;
it also met with the hearty co-operation of the President
and Secretary of State ; and either that or another kindred
proposition, founded upon the opening of the ports of
Japan, would seem to be in a fair way of being accom-
plished. As it is quite likely that Congress w^ill be influ-
enced by Mr. Mori's opinions and wishes on this important
subject, we may state them in outline as follows: He
would take about one-third of the amount, and erect in
Japan a number of appropriate buildings in the leading
cities, and furnish them with all the necessaries, including
libraries and scientific apparatus, for a complete course of
education; he would have them supplied with professors
and subordinate teachers, taken from the United States;
and w^ould then have the balance of five hundred thousand
dollars invested in United States securities, and kept in
Washington, the interest of which should be used to sup-
port the institutions in Japan. The idea is indeed a
splendid one, and in strict keeping with the many and
unwearied efforts of Mr. Mori to elevate and promote the
permanent prosperity and happines;s of his people.

HISTOKY OF THE EMBASSY. 45

One of the most remarkable and interesting features con-
nected with the advent of the Embassy in this country,
was the fact that it was accompanied by a party of young
Japanese girls, who were brought hither for the purpose
of being educated ; and we feel certain that, in concluding
this account, a few words about them will be acceptable to
the public.

In 1871, a Japanese gentleman, named R. Kuroda, passed
through the United States on his way from England to
Japan. He subsequently returned to America, and in his
official capacity as Commissioner of the Island of Yesso,
concluded arrangements which resulted in securing the
services of General Horace Capron for the benefit of Japan.
During his two brief visits to this country, he became so
deeply impressed with the happy condition of the American
woman, that he began to inquire into the cause of such a
state of things, and was told that it was because the women
of the country were educated, treated with the highest
consideration, and are regarded equal to men in all the
higher qualities of humanity. With his friend, Mr. Arinori
Mori, he held several long discussions on the subject, took
the advanced ground that the Japanese ought to inter-
marry with the people of the more enlightened foreign
nations, and, in his zeal, went so far as to insist that Mr.
Mori should marry an American lady without delay. To
this the youthful minister replied, that he considered him-
self a true patriot, and would like to oblige his friend, but
did not think it necessary for him to go into the marrying
business quite so suddenly. From that time, however,
Mr. Kuroda thought and talked unceasingly about the im-
portance of educating the women of his native land. The

46 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

letter which he wrote to his Government on this subject
deserves to be printed in gold. A copy of it was brought
to this country by the Embassy, and delivered to Mr.
Mori. After commenting upon the importance of coloniz-
ing the wilder parts of Japan, the writer goes on to speak
of the importance of education. To send ignorant men
into the new regions would be quite useless, and, therefore,
the first thing to be done was to educate the women of the
Empire, so that the coming generation might be enlightened.
While children under ten years of age were wholly under
the influence of their mothers, it was, of course, of the
utmost importance that they should be educated. As a
little leaven leavens the whole lump, so would the education
of women elevate the people of Japan. The Government
had sent its young men to America and Europe to be
educated, and was already reaping a valuable return; and
now was the time for Japan to begin to educate its women ;
and hence he would have a delegation of girls sent to
America without delay, and he knew that a great many
others would follow in this pathway of enlightenment.
What was new with Mr. Kuroda, however, was an old
story with Mr. Morj, who, if a little less enthusiastic, was
quite as deeply interested as the commissioner. On his
return to Japan, he broached the idea to his Government
of sending a number of young girls to America to be
educated ; reported the fact that he was fully indorsed by
Mr. Mori, and, having obtained the hearty co-operation of
Tomomi Iwakura, the Junior Prime Minister of Japan, an
arrangement was made by which five Japanese girls were
permitted to accompany the great Embassy to Washington.
As the American Minister, Mr. Charles E. DeLong, was

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HISTOKY OF THE EMBASSY. 47

about to visit the United States on private business, he
joined the Embassy; and, as he was accompanied by his
wife, she took charge of the Japanese girls during their
long journey from Yeddo to Washington ; and treated them
with great kindness and attention, and received their
gratitude in return. Before leaving home they were sum-
moned to Yeddo, and in testimony of the good-will of the
Mikado, and according to an ancient custom, they were
each presented, by the attendants of the Court, with beau-
tiful specimens of crimson crape, and an order was issued
that their expenses while in America should be paid by the
Government.

The names of this delegation of Japanese girls are as
follows: Lio Yoshimas, aged 15; Tei Wooyeda, aged
about 15; Stematz Yamagawa, aged 12; Shinge Nagai,
aged 10, and Time Tsuda, aged 8 years. They represent
in their persons five distinct families, and while they are
not immediately connected with the imperial family of
Japan, they do belong to that particular class, which would,
in this country, be called the aristocracy of intellect and
wealth combined. How these particular girls happened
to be selected is not important ; and, although their fathers
or friends were abundantly able to send them abroad, they
have in reality come to this country as the wards of the
Japanese Government. Their fathers are all connected
with the present Government, and rank as follows : Yoshi-
mas, retainer of a prince of Tokzyawa ; Wooyeda, Second
Secretary of the Department of State; Yamagawa, First
Chamberlain to the Prince of Adzu ; Nagai was formerly
a retainer of the Tycoon, but now holds allegiance to the
ruling power, and has a public position ; Tsuda is one of

48 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

the Secretaries of Ag^ricultnre, as well as a Geoloo^ist and Civil
Engineer. They were consigned to the care of the Jap-
anese Minister, Mr. Mori, in \Yashington ; and, in view of
very numerous applications that were made by educational
institutions throughout the country, to take them in charge,
and while debating what was best to do with the girls,
Mr. Mori resolved to keep them for a few months under
his immediate protection, and obtained comfortable and
cheerful homes for them in Georgetown, under the general
supervision of the Editor of this volume.

With regard to the kind of education which the Govern-
ment of Japan would have bestowed upon these girls, that
is a question which will probably be decided by Mr. Mori,
and his personal views have been freely expressed in Wash-
ington society. He would, in the first place, have them
made fully acquainted with the blessings of home life in
the United States; and, in the second place, he would have
their minds fully stored with all those kinds of information
whicli will make them true ladies.

The glitter and folly of fashionable life may do for those
who have no love or respect for what is called true cul-
ture ; but that is not the arena in which he would place
the bright-eyed daughters of his native land. That the
Tenno of Japan is in hearty sympathy with the educa-
tional movement now under consideration is proven by one
of his recent declarations, in which, to the astonishment of
the world, he has uttered the following sentiment :

" My country is now undergoing a complete change
from old to new ideas, which I sincerely desire, and there-
fore call upon all the wise and strong-minded to appear,
and become good guides to the Government. During

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 49

youth time, it is positively necessary to view foreign
countries, so as to become enlightened as to the ideas of
the world ; and boys as well as girls, who will themselves
soon become men and women, should be allowed to go
abroad, and my country will benefit by the knowledge
thus acquired. Females heretofore have had no position
socially, because it was considered they were without un-
derstanding ; but if educated and intelligent, they should
have due respect."

We are pleased to know that since their arrival in the
District, they have appeared very happy, and have ex-
pressed themselves well pleased with the temporary ar-
rangement which Mr. Mori has made for them. They are all
eager to learn the English language, and they liave already
become acquainted with many common words and their
uses. The most interesting feature among them is probably
the fact that the youngest was sent by her mother, who vol-
untarily m.akes the sacrifice of her own happiness for the ben-
efit of her child. Her father is a good English scholar, and
has already taught the little one many words ; and among
lior valuables, carefully packed away by them for her, is an
iUustrated cyclopedia, in two large Japanese volumes, in
wliich is written, "My dear daughter Ume, from father;
Yeddo, Dec. 19, 1871," and a good supply of letter-paper,
pencils, and India-ink, which she seems to appreciate. She
is very bright, and quickly learns what she is taught.
They have all been more pleased with a selection of
American primers than anything they have been shown.
Their time seems to be most cheerfully and satisfactorily
employed, which is devoted to the spelling of words, ex-
pressing the common articles in daily use on the table and

3

50 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

about the house, and the oldest assists in the duties of the
household, at her own request. They all know the English
alphabet, and are apt at forming words therefrom.

They have brought with them several handsome dresses,
which are of elegant materials, and embroidered in gold
and colored silks, mostly upon a fabric of Canton crape.

The youngest has brought from her home pictures of
her father's house, with the family on the porch or balcony
in front ; in one scene the house looks upon a rice-field ; in
another, upon a beautiful lake, and another gives a glimpse
of river scenery, with the banks lined with cherry-trees.
Her mother is seated, with her little sister in her lap, her
father by her side, and her mother, a very old person,
beside him. There is also another picture of the mother
with her little Time's hand in hers, and this seems to be a
pleasant picture to the little wanderer. She does not
seem to be at all homesick, and her companions say that
she has never been unhappy since she left Japan. The
two older ones are graceful, sprightly, and attractive,
although not beautiful, and are very neat in their habits
and persons. The other two are full of mischief and glee,
making the house ring with their merry laughter. They
are anxious to assume the American garb, and are impa-
tient to have theii* wardrobes completed at once. They do
not use any paint or powder, as has been asserted, and
have abandoned their pomatums, hoping thereby to be
better enabled to arrange their luxuriant hair in the
American bushy style. They are all exceedingly polite
and gentle in their manners.

It having been intimated to these girls, on their arrival
in San Francisco, that they ought to be, or might be, sup-

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 51

plied with jewelry, the older ones declined any such ar-
rangement. They said that their Government had been
very kind in sending them here to be educated, that the
expenses attending their education would be great, and
that they would be perfectly willing to dress in the most
humble manner until their return to Japan. And these are
the people whom some of the fools of America would treat
with ridicule I

It may be mentioned that, although the majority of the
Japanese in this country seem anxious to see the women
educated, there is to be found an occasional dissenter, one
of whom happens to be at school in Norwich, Connecticut,
and is the brother of one of these young girls ; and, on hear-
ing that his sister was coming with the Embassy, he wrote
to Mr. Mori that he was opposed to the educational system
for women, and hoped that he would not send his sister
anywhere in his vicinity, but would keep her under his
own eye. It should be added, however, that he subse-
quently discussed the matter with Mr. Mori in person, and
was at once converted to the more enlightened doctrine,
and is now very glad that his sister is in this country.

It is generally supposed, as we learn from a Japanese,
that the nations of Asia pay little respect to ladies, and it
is true, in many cases. This degradation of woman unfor-
tunately arose from mistaken views, inculcated in the
philosophy of China, for Chinese classics found their way
into Japan much as those of Greece and Rome did among
scholars of western nations. He also says that '^ from the
earliest dawn of our recorded history, women have enjoyed
equal rights with men, and, although abuses may have
crept in among our lower classes, womanhood has never

52 THE JAPAJ^ESE liT AMERICA.

been degraded in Japan. Whatever customs have been
introduced in among the lower classes, through the perni-
cious teachings of Chinese literature, they have been con-
stantly resisted by our better classes. Never original to
Japan, our eiibrts have been to eradicate them as fast as
possible. In proof of these assertions, I refer to our ancient
history, showing that out of one hundred and twenty-four
sovereigns, rulers of Japan, eight empresses are included
in the list. These ladies ruled long and wisely. Under
the rule of an empress, Japan attacked and conquered
Corea, after a brilliant campaign, w^hich country she held
as a dependency for over six hundred years, when, finding
it had become more care than value, we voluntarily relin-
quished it. Under the rule of an empress, Japan attained
high literary culture, religion was inculcated and re-
spected, and facilities for general education were greatly
improved. China never had an empress. Throughout
most of the countries of Europe and Asia, lines of heredi-
tary descent have been wholly male ; but I am happy to
say, Japan has prospered under eight such reigns. Find-
ing our ancient practice confirmed by the experience of
western nations, Japan need not hesitate now to enforce
among all classes that respect and consideration for
woman which has never been w^anting about her Court,
and among her better families. Thus may Japan hope to
insure the stability of her civilization, and regain her early
chivalry, and, by enlisting the assistance of educated
mothers and daughters, secure a noble future."

While the women of Japan are not treated with very
great respect by the male inhabitants, there is an old law
which has existed for hundreds of years, and which is yet,

HISTORY OF THE EMBASSY. 53

in spirit and letter, rigidly enforced, by which a mother,
in Japan, is held responsible for her children. If they are
good, she receives all the credit ; if they are bad, she is
punished. Their young minds are singularly free from all
evil tendencies, and it is something almost unseen or un-
heard of, to find unruly children. They are singularly
obedient, and are taught habits of courtesy, and an abid-
ing faith in a mother's influence. The only exceptions to
this rule are those naturally dejDraved j^ersons, who are to
be found wherever the sun shines. In the main, however,
the Japanese race are polite, attractive, charitable, and
noble. One of the earliest faiths instilled into the mind
of the young of both sexes, is that which forms so impor-
tant a part of their religious belief, and this faith is incul-
cated in them when they are but prattling babes, learning
to lisp their own language.

The story is that of one of the earlier princesses, who,
thousands of years ago, was a ruling power in the Great
Land of the Rising Sun. Her virtue, her honesty, and her
integrity, are discoursed upon at length, and the children
are taught that they must emulate her illustrious example.
In order that they may do so there have been placed in
difierent parts of the islands temples to the Goddess Issa.
In each of these temples are to be found a precious stone,
large, pure, and polished, a mirror, and a sharp sword.

The application is as follows : They must ever preserve
their honor and their virtue as a precious jewel. In decid-
ing upon important questions, or in the lesser affairs of life,
should there be any doubt as to the proper course to pur-
sue, or should they imagine they are not acting as prompted
by the heart, they look in this mirror and examine their

54 THE JAPANESE IN AMERICA.

own eye. The eye being the index of the soul, the gazer
can the more easily determine the honesty of his intentions.
Then, satisfied that he is right, the seeker after knowledge
takes the sword and defends his faith to the death.

In Japan there are but two classes or grades of society,
those who are of the nobility, and those who are not. They
never intermingle, and it is only the latter that are ever
seen on the streets or in public.

The wives of common people will walk abroad ; but a
lady never goes except in a close carriage.

The prevalent pagan sentiment of inferiority creates this
disadvantage. They are completely subject to their hus-
band's orders, and even should he be willing for his wife to
go abroad, the inexorable law of caste would interpose
objections. They are, in flict, in unwholesome restraint.

The present experiment of sending females to America
to be educated will doubtless prove a successful one, and
the selection made would seem to insure a happy result for
Japan.

PAET II.

THE JAPANESE STUDENTS.

The total number of Japanese students who have visited
America is estimated at five hundred, but the number now
studying in this country is about two hundred. They are
chiefly congregated in the New England States, and New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Nearly
the w^hole of them are supported by their Government, a
few by their rich relatives, and perhaps half a dozen by
themselves. Their annual expenses average about one
thousand dollars, and all the money is received by the
students through their Minister in Washington. The in-
stitutions which they attend are various in character, and
have been selected, in each instance, so as to meet the
peculiar desires of each student, in view of his future pro-
fession or position under the Government ; and the ofticial
reports w^hich are regularly sent to Washington, prove
conclusively that the sons of Japan are quite equal to those
of America in their intellectual progress, their morals, and
general good conduct. One distinguished teacher in New
England remarked that if all the Japanese resembled his
scholars, he would like to move his school to the Empire
of Japan. Another gentleman, who had closely studied the
manners and habits of the students in his charge, on being

56 THE JAPAJ^ESE 11^ AMERICA.

questioned as to his intention of going to Japan, quietly-
remarked that he hoped so, because he wished to improve
his oimi education in some important particulars. Professor
J. D. Butler of Illinois, who had the privilege of travelling
in the West, by railway, with a party of twenty-nine newly-
arrived students, furnishes us with this testimony : — " I have
never seen a more promising set of students. Each has two
swords — his badge of nobility — but these were almost all
packed up in the baggage, and instead of such vanities,
most had books, each on his seat or table ; not merely guide-
books and maps of the route, but lexicons, grammars, and
polyglot phrase-books. When weary of gazing at corn-
oceans, and the grain in harvested wheat-fields, each would
be busy with his books or writing.

" There was no drinking, no cards, nor any game. I
should have thought myself in a school, but for the pipes,
with bowls not half as big as thimbles, which appeared in
homoeopathic smokes." Commodore John L. Worden, of
the Naval Academy at Annapolis, on being questioned by
the Secretary of the Navy as to the conduct of the Jap-
anese students in that institution, gave a full account of
their studies, and paid them this compliment :

"The conduct of the Japanese students has been, as I
have stated, excellent, and so far from their interfering in
any way with the discipline of the academy, the example
they have set of amiability and strict regard for regula-
tions, has been worthy of all praise. They have been and
are now subject in all respects to the same rules and rou-
tine as the cadet midshipmen of the academy, even to at-
tending morning prayers and divine service on the Sab-
batli. In the latter regard, their seeming interest and

THE JAPANESE STUDEN"TS. 57

respectful deportment is not at all behind that of their
Christian fellow-students. They add nothing to the ex-
penses of the academy, as all charges are paid by their
own Government. From the character of the young Jap-
anese who have been admitted to the academy, the interest
they take in their studies, and their seeming susceptibility
to the influences by which they are surrounded, I do not
think I am wrong in auguring the best results to American
interests in Japan, as well as to the common cause of
Christian civilization, from the wise provision of Congress
by which a limited number of her young men are per-
mitted to be educated at this institution."

Looking upon Mr. Mori as their protector in this coun-
try, the more advanced students have naturally fallen into
the habit of sending to' him some of the results of their
school education, and the papers which follow have been
selected from the hap-hazard collection thus made. The
opinions they entertain are as various as their characters,
and we happen to know that on several occasions Mr. Mori
has thought it his duty to censure these students for utter-
ing their sarcastic remarks, for it is his chief desire that
the kindest feelings should be cherished between the
Americans and Japanese. Some of the essays are written
\)j very young men, and many of tlieir apparently severe
assertions were uttered more from a love of fun than from
unkindness. If some of them are rather severe upon cer-
tain discreditable phases of American life, it is because the
winters have a quick eye to discover the truth, and the
honesty to tell us what they really believe. So far as our
observations have gone, they enjoy going to the American
churches, and what thev sometimes say of religion does

3*

58 THE JAPAITESE IK AMERICA.

not prove that they have no propei- respect for sacred
things, but that they cannot overlook the fact, that mere
l^rofession of Christianity is a delusion and a mockery.
Nor can they be indiiferent to the fact, that some of the
most deplorable calamities and internal troubles in their
native land have grown directly out of the conduct of the
Roman Catholics, in trying to usurp their government; and
the more cultivated of the people, as well as the masses,
cannot see any great difference in the designs or general
deportment of the different Christian sects. This is, of
course, unfortunate, but not strange, and the Americans
who come in contact with the Japanese are in duty bound,
by their upright example, to eradicate, as time progresses,
the prejudices against true religion which prevail among
the Orientals.

That the Japanese are very close observers of character
and of the ways of fashionable society, is j^i'e-eminently
true, and on this point a single illustration occurs to us
which is worth mentioning. On questioning a resident of
Washington as to his reasons for not going to parties, he
replied as follows : " Because I am not a man, but only a
boy ; I am over twenty-one years old, but mentally only a
boy. A jacket becomes me better than a swallow-tail.
After I have studied five or six years longer, I may be
fitted for parties, for drinking, and smoking, and dancing,
but not yet. When I have become a full man, I may pos-
sibly indulge in such elegancies. I do not think these are
the accomplishments in which my country is anxious to
have me successful." Now this very student is one of
those whose hostility to sham churches cannot be over-
come, and yet the plain, frugal, and unselfish manner of his
daily life is simply heroic and Spartan-like.

THE JAPANESE STUDEXTS. 59

When we come to coDsider their intellectual character-
istics, it will not be easy to estimate them too highly. If
we may judge of the gallant two hundred, now in this
country, by the few specimens whose productions are
printed in this volume, they are abundantly able to com-
pete with students of any other nationality. In their
native language they are all liberally educated ; and when
it is remembered that, with one or two exceptions, none
of them have been studying English for more than five
years, and a large proportion not more than one or two
years, their ability to read, speak, and write good Anglo-
Saxon is most amazing. There is one young man, not yet
twenty years of age, a taste of whose quality will be found
in this volume, whose style of writing is clear, correct, and
pointed, and would serve as a model for many professional
American writers, and yet he has been studying the Eng-
lish language less than four years ; and the thoughts of
this writer are quite equal to his style. Another youth,
who has been in this country only fifteen months, furnishes
a paper which would not be out of place in Addison's
Spectator. Among our contributors is one, a little older
than the preceding, whose sarcasm, analytical style, and
comprehensive views, must surely make him a power among
the rising statesmen of Japan. If that empire is to be
favored with leaders made out of such materials as we have
just mentioned, she may well anticipate a career of intel-
lectual- greatness. Several of the shorter essays that we
publish were written by a mere boy, not over fifteen years
of age. The ready adaptation to western forms of expres-
sion which all these essays exhibit, forcibly illustrate the
fidelity with which the Japanese assume our Anglo-Saxon
characteristics.

60 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

Wliile these Oriental students generally present rather
a demure appearance, they are fond of fun, and when
opi^ortunities occur, enter into harmless frolics with great
zest. One of them, in a private note which he sent us,
makes this allusion to the advent of the Japanese girls :
" I tender my sincere thanks to you on behalf of my
sisters, who are expected from Japan ; but, I pray you, do
not initiate them into that western custom among ladies,
of henpecking their husbands. Beyond the broad Pacific
such an awful thing must not be practised." The same
young man, who had gone to Boston to study law, wrote
the following : " I succeeded in securing a private teacher
for each of my three new friends, and also their boarding-
houses; but I can't get any place for myself Thoroughly
disgusted with this state of affairs, I instructed my solici-
tors, Demosthenes, Cicero & Co., Elysium, to purchase for
my benefit an elegant residence on Beacon-street. As I
was getting ready to leave this noisy hotel, and establish
myself in my new residence, a most astounding answer
to mj 2yositive order arrested further proceedings on my
part. Substance of this was — Almighty Dollar did not see
fit to trust me."

Another youth, from whose room in a boarding-house a
favorite book had been taken away by one of the literary
boarders, wrote a letter to his landlady to the following
effect : " Is it the custom of this country to convey away
one's property without asking ? I thought my room was
my castle. I should be very much obliged if you would
acquaint me with any custom of which I am ignorant."

With regard to the habits and physical characteristics
of the Japanese students, a passing word may be accept-

THE JAPANESE STUDENTS. Gl

able. They dress handsomely, but without ostentation;
they enjoy our American food, and are generally very
temperate in their eating and drinking ; and a large pro-
portion of their spare cash is expended for books, and such
things as are calculated to elevate the mind. Their sense
of honor is exceedingly acute ; their confiding dispositions
and liberality are proverbial, and hence they are frequently
imposed upon by unworthy men ; while they are by no
means clannish in their feelings, they treat each other with
the greatest kindness and consideration, — often excusing
an erring brother, rather than reprimanding him ; and in
their dejjortment among themselves or strangers, never
forget that they are gentlemen. With very few excep-
tions, they are all quite young, — more of them less than
over twenty years of age, — and, although oftentimes deli-
cately developed in their persons, yet they enjoy more
than an average degree of good health. Of all who have
visited this country, we believe that only three have died
here; and this remark carries our mind, with most touching
reflections, to a little spot of ground in New Brunswick,
New Jersey, where these children lie buried, and where
others of their race, in future years, may join them in their
dreamless sleep, far, far from their native land. It is pleas-
ant to know, however, that the footsteps of the dejjarted,
under the skies of America, are lovingly remembered by
many who knew them when they were living, and saw
them consigned to the little spot which is the common
property of the Japanese brotherhood in this country.

But now, as good examples are more convincing than
generalities, we propose to exhibit the pluck and enterprise
and wisdom of the Japanese young men generally, by

62 THE JAPAN"ESE IN AMERICA.

sketching the career of one of their number. To give his
name would aiford us the greatest pleasure, but we have
made a promise not to do so, and, from the excessive mod-
esty of our friend, we expect to be scolded for even mak-
ing tliis allusion to him. But his career has been so re-
markable, we cannot refrain from giving the leading
particulars of his life, — carefully avoiding the mention of
certain proper names.

He was born in Yedo, in 1844, and after acquiring a
little learning in a native school, studied navigation, and
became the secretary of a local prince, who had purchased
an American ship, and was trying to do business in that
line. On one occasion, when this vessel was about to sail
for Hakodado, our young hero volunteered to go as an
assistant of the native captain, whose knowledge of sea-
navigation was limited, and in that port he remained a
number of months, supporting himself by teaching a priest
of the Greek Church the Jaj^anese language. He there
became acquainted with an English clerk in a commercial
house, and with his help acquired a little knowledge of the
English language. To that friend he spoke in confidence,
and told him that he believed the Almighty intended him
to be of some use to his fellow-men, but that he could do
nothing in Japan, and was resolved to leave the country.
In due time, with the help of his friend, he found a ship in
port, which was commanded by an American, and bound
to China; he sold his Japanese clothes, and with the
money he had earned by teaching, secured a passage on
the vessel, going on board in the evening, and hiding him-
self in the cabin until she was fairly out to sea on the fol-
lowing day. When the captain found his passenger a

THE JAPANESE STUDENTS. 63

mere boy of twenty, and well-nigh destitute of means, he
arranged to let him work his passage over the Yellow Sea.
In China he remained about nine months, wandering from
one port to another, now acquiring a knowledge of the
Dutch and Encjlish lanoruag^es, and then teaching a mer-
chant's clerk the Japanese language, or working as a cabin-
boy, and sometimes as a sailor, on board the coasting ves-
sels. At Shanghai, he became acquainted with the captain
of an American ship, to whom he expressed a desire to go
to America. The captain took an interest in the Japanese
waif, and arranged to take him on board as a passenger —
the passage to be paid for by mending and washing the
captain's clothes, keeping his books and the cabin in order,
and instructing the American in the secrets of the Dutch
language ; and in this manner he made a full payment for
his passage to America. He arrived in Boston, and was
employed for about ten weeks as a watchman on the
wharf where his ship was lying. The captain had become
attached to him, and introduced him to his employer.
That good man asked the youth what he w^anted to do,
and the reply was, "I wish to obtain an education."
Arrangements were made, and he was immediately sent
to an appropriate school ; and between an academy and a
still higher institution, he has spent the intervening six
and a half years, to the present time.

From the hour that this young man first began to study
he has been animated with the single thought of becoming
a preacher of the Bible in his native land. In the early
part of his career as a student he went to work and trans-
lated into Japanese the greater part of the Gospel of St.
John. When he came to the sixteenth verse of the third

64 THE JAPAIs'ESE IK AMERICA.

chapter, it riveted his attention and a new light began to
dawn upon his mind. Pie felt that he had never before
been a true Christian, but now it was as if a great load
was lifted from his back, and all doubts and fears were at
once, and forever, cleared away, and the Avorld was full
of sunshine. He subsequently always spoke of that pas-
sage in the Bible as his verse, and he has never ceased to
wonder at the goodness of God in protecting and keeping
him in a happy state of mind.

Very soon after Mr. Mori's arrival in this country he
became acquainted with the history and position of our
nameless student, and reported the same to the Home
Government, requesting that he might at once be made an
official student. The request was promptly granted, the
offer made by Mr. Mori, and was very gratefully but de-
cidedly declined. The reasons assigned by the student were,
that he wished to be free and independent, to pursue his
long-cherished idea of becoming a missionary in Japan.
He fully appreciated the summons which had been sent to
him by his Government, declared himself as truly loyal
to the Tenno of Japan, but felt that he could be a more
useful friend of his race by pursuing the course he had
marked out for himself, — and what was more — his highest
allegiance was due to that Great Being who had thus far
been his best friend.

When the Japanese Embassy arrived in Washington,
the student in question was summoned to Washington by
Mr. Mori, who renewed his former proposition, which was
again declined. His services were needed in connection
with certain proposed plans connected with education ;
and on the orround that he should be treated as an hired

THE JAPAi^ESE STUDEi^TS. 65

servant and not as a Government student, he went to
work for Mr. Mori, and acquitted himself with marked
ability and faithfulness ; and he was also assigned to the
pleasant duty, by the Embassy, of accompanying the
Japanese Commission of Education on an exploring tour
among the educational institutions of the country.

With regard to his future course as a missionary and a
teacher, he is yet undecided. He hopes, however, to leave
the United States in about one year from this time. Should
he then find that the laws in Japan against missionaries
have not been relaxed, he will go and become a simple
school-teacher among his people, waiting patiently for the
time when he can become a teacher of the Bible. In
Japan, as well as here, he will be free from all govern-
ment patronage, and he has an abiding faith that, w^lien in
want of funds, he can always obtain an abundant supply
from the good people of the United States.

One more incident, illustrative of another phase of our
friend's character, and we will close this notice. Leading,
as he has now done, for nearly seven years, the life of a
hard-working student, he has, of course, required some re-
laxation. This he has obtained by visiting the sea-shore
or the mountains.

In the former case, his favorite resort has been the home,
on Cape Cod, of the good old captain who brought him to
this country from China, and where, until the old sailor
died, about a year ago, he was always treated as one of the
family. And of his mountain-tours, we can only say that
one of them was performed on foot to the White Moun-
tains, accompanied by two friends, when he was absent for
nearly six weeks and only spent thirty dollars — three of

66 THE JAPANESE I:N" AMERICA.

which were paid out for photographic pictures. The pedes-
trians started with a tent, but it turned into an " elephant,"
and so, after tramping about twenty-five miles per day with
knapsack and staff, and obtaining their meals at farm-
houses or from the berry-fields, they usually slept in clover,
in the barns which were at hand as the sun went down,
and to which they were always kindly admitted. This
whole expedition was one of great interest, and a minute
account of it would make an interesting volume.

We are sorry to say that a promised essay from this stu-
dent on the importance of making Christianity the found-
ation of all intellectual culture in Japan, was not received
in time to be printed in this volume.

STUDE:rsrTS^ ESSAYS.

THE PRACTICAL AMERICANS.
By E. R. Enouye.

Is it a disgrace to the Americans that they are a
practical people ?

Before entering into the discussion which the theme
demands, let me define the position from which I am obliged
to look at this delicate question. Jaj^an, before the late
revolution, was undoubtedly the most aristocratic nation in
the world. As is usually the case under such circumstan-
ces, the down-trodden mass of the people strikingly mani-
fest that characteristic which is the subject of my preseut
essay — namely, an acquaintance only with those ways of
life which relate to the supply of the actual wants and
necessities of mankind. This is because, the greater por-
tion of the nation's wealth being in the hands of the ruling
class, the lower classes have to make the most of every-
thing within their reach. I, like any other thoughtless
born-aristocrat, despised this tendency of the commons. I
acknowledge now that this was very unjust, but still some-
thing of this spirit will no doubt influence me in the decis-
ion of the great question now before us, and I request my
kind readers constantly to bear in mind this circumstance.

When Columbus revealed to the astonished inhabitants
of the Old World this continent, with its boundless resources,

68 THE JAPANESE li^ AMERICA.

unappreciated by its simple natives, the terrors of the
yet unexplored Atlantic were not sufficient to keep back
the bands of adventurers who soon flocked from all quar-
ters to this newly-discovered land. Disregarding the rights
of the original owners, they appropriated to their use what-
ever they could obtain, and it was not long before bitter
quarrels among themselves began. Mexico had its Cortez,
Peru its Pizarro ; but that portion of the new continent
now the United States of America was contended for by
the English, the French, and the Dutch. They settled in
various localities of the country, and by their conglomera-
tion was formed the United States of the present day.

The Americans, who unmistakably inherited the virtues
as well as the vices of their ancestors, are a nervously ener-
getic, enterprising people. When they threw off the Brit-
ish yoke, what remained was to develop the hidden re-
sources of the country ; and how well they have performed
this the present prosperity of the country sufficiently attests.
In the course of this stupendous undertaking they were
being contiimally brought into contact with new difficulties,
and they have always proved themselves equal to any emer-
gency.

The world is indebted to the Americans for the steam-
boat, telegraph, and many other very useful inventions. It
may be broadly asserted that whatever had a practical
application was studied and improved by them. A glance
at its educational system enables one to form some idea of
the people. The cities have their business colleges, while
agricultural colleges dot the face of the country. Then
there are schools of engineering, architecture, medicine,
and other departments of the useful arts, and these are

students' essays. 69

faithfully attended to, while the general education of the
youths is designed to make practical men. The fine arts,
which refine, ennoble, and delight mankind, are sadly neg-
lected. The fact is, an American does not want to be a
painter, sculptor, poet, or rhetorician, but a rich man.
Wealth is the sole object of ambition of the people at large.
I must say now that I am entering on very serious grounds.
I am not so presumptuous as to attempt to trespass on
theology, but I must confess I shall go very near the fron-
tiers of it. The Americans who point the fingers of scorn
against the rest of Christendom as lukewarm in the cause
of religion, and freely condemn without fair trial the rest of
mankind as ignorant of the duties of man, seem to think
that money-making is the most important business of life ;
and, taking this as a standard, I shall finish the rest of my
essay accordingly. It is not possible that the Americans
should be such enthusiastic champions of Christianity, and
yet reject its teachings in their ordinary life.

But Christianity teaches them that their souls live after
their bodies, and therefore they must better the condi-
tion of their minds by the cultivation of virtues in this
w^orld. The money-loving Americans are doing just the
opposite of this. So-called business men, who constitute
a large portion of " the life and the blood " of American
society, seemingly have no souls, for they are exposed for
sale, if not already exchanged, for hard cash. When their
souls are disposed of they receive the millions of money
they desire ; but what is to be done with it ?

Without sympathy, without frankness and generosity of
feeling, despising human nature, they have no more use for
their riches than the Peruvians had for theirs before the

70 THE JAPANESE Iiq" AMERICA.

Spaniards came to rob tliem. Some men find delight in
the fine arts, in philosophy, in science, in the exercise of the
benevolent and social affections ; but they have no relish
for these. They can no more detect beauties in them than
a savage can appreciate all the intricate combinations of
harmony in music. As to religion, they consent to pay
their pew-tax, and to be bored by an occasional sermon on
Sunday, for aj^pearance sake ; but their real churches are
their counting-houses, their real bible their ledger, and last
of all, their real god is not Almighty God, but " the
almighty dollar."

If money- making is the source of enjoyment to them, as
drunkenness and gluttony are to some men, I have only to
say that their taste is a corrupted one. It is but just to say
that the riches of these men are gained by hard, patient
labor ; hence they are more to be pitied than condemned, for
the question again returns, " What is to be done with these
riches, and what have they made themselves by the opera-
tion?"

Another set of men, thinking this a rather unprofitable
way of making money, adopt a system which combines
both theft and perjury, and insures to those men a life of
misery, which they richly deserve. I refer to those who
seek fortune by a lucky, marriage — an excellent mode of
self-selling ! A man who is so degraded as to go through
a formal loving of an innocent, confiding woman for the
sake of her money, shows a disposition which, if an oppor-
tunity presented, would sell country, religion, anything and
everything which mankind so sacredly prizes. All these
things arise from that intense love of money which is so
deeply ingrafted in the hearts of the Americans. If they

students' essays. 71

should pay more attention to philosophy and the fine arts,
they would be far more intellectual as a people ; but as long
as they are admirers of wealth, no matter how gained, they
are merely practical and inconsistent people. Inconsistent,
because priding themselves on their republican simplicity,
they are the most willing slaves of fashion ; or pretending
to be true republicans, they are never so happy as when
they have an opportunity of paying respect to a prince or
a duke. Where is the trouble? The answer is plain.
They are too practical.

When Franklin, than whom there cannot be a more
practical American, with all the simplicity of Cincinnatus
presented himself before the court of Versailles, even the
ultra-royalists could not withhold the veneration due the
man for true dignity, and he commanded the respect of
even the bitterest enemies. Compared with this glorious
spectacle, the idea of the Americans of the present day,
with much money, trying to imitate the manners of other
countries whose teachers they might w^ell become, and mak-
ing bad blunders, is really disgraceful. In their eagerness
to educate all the young persons to be practical, they
almost neglect their moral training. Man is both an in-
tellectual and moral being. He must be so educated as
to develop both these capacities. If his intellect is trained
more than his moral nature, he will be a dangerous man,
for his power for evil is increased beyond measure.

In this connection I may again observe a strange
inconsistency of the Americans. Though they thus neglect
their moral training at home, they send missionaries to
teach the wretched heathen to be good, and at the same
time send a company of practical men whg show their

72 THE JAPAIN^ESE IN" AMERICA.

practicability by extracting the riches in every way, and
when they could, by cheating those men whom their fel-
low-countrymen undertake to teach — to be what? — to
be good !

So I might go on, but I think I have said enough to
make you acknowledge, at least to yourself, that it is a dis-
grace to the Americans that they are a practical people.

THE CHINESE AMBASSADOR IN FRANCE.
By M. Toyama.

Tlie dwarf of yesterday is the giant of to-day. He who
appears a dwarf before a giant, appears -a giant before a
dwarf. He who behaves politely, even timidly, before
a greater one than himself, behaves haughtily and confi-
dently before a weaker one than himself A cat is to a
mouse as a dog to a cat. M. Thiers is to the Chinese
Ambassador as Bismarck to Thiers.

In the recent interview between Tchong Hoan, iVmbassa-
dor of the Gre;it Empire of Tsing, and M. Thiers, the
illustrious President of the great French Nation, the
heathen Ambassador was taught by the Christian Presi-
dent how in Christendom the weaker is to be kicked by
the stronger. If the speech by the Ambassador sounds
very funn}^, with so many pompous adjectives, and so much
servility, the reply of the President sounds so haughty
and commanding that there is no doubt he has already
thoroughly learned the Bismarckian style of addressing a
weaker one, from the frequent practices exercised upon
himself But Bismarck makes a consistent speech, while
Thiers makes an inconsistent one.

Let me s^e how he goes on. He says: "The French

STUDEIS"TS' ESSAYS. 73

nation is too humane to take pleasure in the shedding of
blood." But if there has been any nation since the crea-
tion which has taken pleasure in the shedding of blood, it
is this very French nation. Again, he says : " It demands
only that severity which is necessary to restrain the wicked."
Well, if it is so, the relations of the victims of the recent
barbarous executions in France, in cold blood, would have
been more fortunate, and a grand funeral procession would
never have taken place in New York on Sunday, the 17th
of December, 1871. Again, he says : "Your Government
is too enlightened not to appreciate the merits of those
missionaries — men of great worth — who expatriate them-
selves in order to spread abroad throughout the world
principles of civilization, against whom evil-disposed per-
sons have not feared recently to excite the popular
hatred."

What is meant by these merits ? Are they serviceable
for France or the Pope ? And what is their worth ?
These missionaries might perhaps be worth a good thrash-
ing, for expatriating themselves in order to spread abroad
throughout the world superstition and sectarian fanaticism
instead of the principles of civilization, which are directly
against their interest, and to meddle with politics, disturb
the authorities, and cheat the people under cover of the
sacred name of religion. A great many good authorities
are witnesses to how much mischief has been brought
upon the world, instead gf good, through the work of those
French and Spanish missionaries. It would be a pity if
the Chinese Government is too enlightened to appreciate the
merits of these missionaries. Suppose that they are the
real ministers of the Gospel. In that case they had better

4

74 THE JAPxVXESE T^ AMERICA.

stay at home, because their hard labor would be more
necessary there than anywhere else. If Paris does not re-
quire as many missionaries as the whole number among the
heathen Chinese, Sodom must have been a pretty holy
place. Well, this is really a conceited world 1

Again, Thiers says : " The people will respect the for-
eigners wdien they shall see their own magistrates treating
them with respect." If this is true, M. Thiers is accusing
himself. How" can he excuse himself from so many hard
complaints of outrages committed upon the Prussians by
the French, because this is not done by the French people,
but by the French magistrates ? If such is the case, no
compassion would be felt toward the magistrates for the
troubles arising from this direction, but they ought to be
effectually punished. Thiers might say that the French
have a great deal of prejudice against the Prussians ; so
the Chinamen have many prejudices against the foreigners,
especially against those nominal Christians who might be
called the Shylockian Pecksniffs. It does not always fol-
low that the magistrates do not respect foreigners when
the people do not respect them. Is there any Government
which treats foreigners as respectfully as that of the United
States ? Yet look at the oft-repeated outrages committed
upon the Chinamen by the people of the United States.
Does M. Thiers think that this is because of the lack of
respect for foreigners by the magistrates of the United
States? If even the people of the more cosmopolitan
United States, whose motto is universal intercourse among
nations, have such prejudices against some foreigners, how
much more could it not be expected from the ignorant
people of conservative heathen China? The hatred of

students' essays., 75

foreigners occurs in two cases ; when the people have mere
prejudice against them, and when they have real cause of
hatred on account of their haughty or impudent conduct,
their disrespect to the natives, their disregard of the laws
of the land, and, most of all, their violation and ridicule of
their most sacred customs, which drive sometimes even the
more civilized people into madness.

But in' most cases these two causes are joined; this is at
least the case with the hatred of foreigners in the eastern
countries. How can foreigners expect to be respected by
the natives when they do not respect the natives ? They
are not to expect from the heathen Chinamen that they
should let them smite their other cheek when they have
smitten their right cheek. This is indeed too much for the
heathen. Here is the merit of which Thiers spoke. When
they have converted the nations to perfect Christians
according to their mould, and insinuated their passive
doctrines into their innocent minds completely, then is the
time when foreigners may smite both cheeks of the natives,
disinter the dead bodies, kidnap their children, without in-
curring any hatred, nay, be still beloved by them all the
more. Such is the invaluable merit of those Roman Catho-
lic missionaries. Then there would be no need of those
silver-headed heavy canes for coercing the will of the natives
summarily. The conduct of foreigners, excepting some of
the better class of the missionaries and a few laymen, is a
very fi5liame to the name of Christianity and civilization, and
retards the progress of both. They do not pay the prices
of things they buy, and even the beat-fares required of
them ; but no sooner do they observe a shadow of discon-
tent in the face of the person who demands it, than the

76 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

heavy caiie is over his head. At home such behavior would
be properly chastised by indictment for assault and battery,
but in the eastern countries the European tyrants are
under the protection of guns and povrder ; moreover, of that
sacred cross of St. George, or the Tricolor. So that, when-
ever they treat a native outrageously, if he do not lose his
senses he would keep his anger to himself, because, if he
resent it, the fate of his darling country would be endanger-
ed even by the loss of a single hair of theirs.

There is no mystery in the fact that Christianity has not
made any considerable progress beyond Europe, when we
know that those Christians who go out to foreign countries
behave themselves worse than the heathen, or, at least, no
better than they. First of all they are the slaves of Mam-
mon, go to houses of ill-repute, swear without almost any
cause, insult the natives, kick and beat them, and behave
as haughtily as Juhus Caesar. Moreover, these things take
place on Sunday more than any other day of the week,
because on other days they have things of more material
interest to attend to.

It is in vain that some really good Christians try to per-
suade the natives that Christianity is the true religion of
God, while they are beset on all sides by these splendid
specimens of nominal Christians; and when they look back
at their conduct they would not find any reason why they
should feel particularly ashamed before Christians. A trai-
tor is worse than an enemy. Yet these nominal Christians
are such. How can one be blamed when he cannot find out
the right way, when he has no guide ? But how could one
be excused when he goes a wrong Avay by his own perverse-
ness and wicked intention, when he has a sure, infallible

77

guide ? The eastern nations could not help being heathen,
because they had no good guide to take them to the right
path. But among the western nations was there not an in-
fallible guide who sacrificed himself for their sake? Those
who call themselves Christians, yet behave quite unlike them,
ai-e far worse than the pure heathen ; while, if there were no
such mock Christians, Christianity would have made its
progress smoothly. It loses credit through their conduct
among the ignorant heathen, and its progress is thus
obstructed. Woe to the betrayers of the Master ! If He
should appear in this world at this time, He could scarcely
recognize his own people. Oh ! Has He shed his blood in
vain ! May we hope that God will forbid that ! We can
get over any difficulty when we are in earnest. Our way is
always open when we are willing. Lack not your will, that is
the only passport to pass the gate ! Let those true Chris-
tians who are going to enter the gate, and wish to take with
them as many fellow-creatures as they can, pay more atten-
tion to their followers, purify their camp first, then go out to
the expedition. A rotten root can never bear a good fruit.
But I have digressed too much. To return to the for-
eigners talked about by M. Thiers. I think that before the
Frenchmen can teach the Chinamen how to respect foreign-
ers, they should first learn how to do so themselves, because
it was for their want of such respect that they were lately
caught by the Prussians. Perhaps Thiers has learned the
evil consequences of this want of respect for foreigners, by
his recent experience, and may have spoken with a true
kindness, lest China might meet with the same misfortune.
But I am afraid that although the President has learned to
respect the stronger, he has yet little respect for the weaker,
as I do not find much respect for the foreigner in his late

78 THE JAPAiq"ESE IN" AMERICA.

speech addressed to the Chinese Ambassador. Even the
Indian Commissioner here in the United States addresses
the Indians in more respectful words.

Thiers also says: "It is agahi the province of the Chinese
Government to show by its attitude and by its proceedings,
with respect to diplomatic and consular agents, the extent
of the special consideration which is due to their public
character, by virtue of the rules universally received among
all nations."

There is nothing to be said if this is reciprocal. Why, is
there not likewise a proper conduct for diplomatic and con-
sular agents universally received among all nations ? They,
as the more civilized people, should first set an example as
to the decorum to be observed.

But, in the eastern countries, many Catacazys would go
with impunity.

CO-EDUCATION OF BOYS AND GIRLS.
By Shioji Takato.
In music, there are a thousand instruments, each differing
from tlie other in its pitch and sound. The object, however,
is not to separate them, but to unite and harmonize them,
so as to produce an enchanting melody, which can never
be obtained from any single sound. So the object of God
in creating all things and beings, and giving them forms and
characters differing one from another, is, no doubt, to unite
them and produce a temperate and accomplished whole. The
burning wind of the tropics uniting with the freezing blasts
from the poles, causes the mild and temperate clime, where
spring-flowers smile and spontaneous products grow. God

STUDEKTS' ESSAYS. 79

has given the man a character "bold and strong; the wo-
man, one mild and gentle, differing one from the other as
the piercing sound of the flute from the soft tones of the
harp. His object is evident in itself, and requires no solu-
tion. Look at the nations who are treating woman as a
slave or as instrument of their sport, they are very low in
their civilization, and, like wild beasts, are constantly biting
and fighting.

From the law of God, and the instances furnished by those
nations, I see then, clearly, that the characters of the sexes
must blend and help each other ; or otherwise great discord
in the music of nature will be the result. Female colleges
and academies are excellent and important institutions ; but
they have nothing to do in the matter of tempering the
characters of the sexes. Only in co-education of the sexes
can we secure both ends at once: the cultivation of their
intellects and the harmonizing of their characters. In thus
CO educating, we teach them in the same school, by the same
professors, and with the same books ; therefore, during the
entire session, from day to day, and from month to month,
the opinions and purposes of the sexes will gradually and
naturally harmonize ; the saucy mischievousness of the boys
will be tempered by the gentle politeness of the girls, and
the vain fancy and timid weakness of the girls will take on
the primitive simplicity and determined steadiness of the
boys ; and, at last, a moderate, accomplished, and unblem-
ished virtue and culture will be attained by both the sexes.
Some say, the wives of officers have nothing to do in the
offices, and the wives of merchants do not interfere v/ith the
business ; consequently, for woman there is no need of such
an education as that required for man. The opinion is

80 THE JAPANESE liN" AMEEICA.

worthy of the farmer in the old story, Avho, thinking that
the trees, and not the ground, bore the fruits, scattered his
fertilizers over the leaves and boughs of the trees, and left
the ground un enriched and uncultivated. But, ere his
boast of the new economical invention spread to his neigh-
bors, all his trees had died. If we are able to make the
world fruitful by cultivating man only, leaving woman a
desert, the trees of the farmer should have borne the fruit.

When a tree is young it easily bends ; a pin for a post
and a thread for a rope are enough to twist it into any
shape. A small rivulet can be stopped or led in any direc-
tion without difficulty, even by a single hoe in the hand of
a child. But after the tree has grown into a towering
trunk, with its boughs mingling with clouds ; or after the
rivulet has become a mighty river with billows on its sur-
face, and carrying down millions of tons of soil every year,
nothing in the world can either stop the one or bend the
other. It is plain, then, that if we teach men from their
youth, the eifort will be successful, and we have no doubt
of success in the attempt to harmonize the sexes by co-edu-
cating them from their youth. The great disadvantage of
co-education, as urged by many, is that it will make young
gentlemen and ladies too intimate, and occasion objection-
able associations.

But what is the province of the school, and what are the
subsequent relations of the sexes? The school is not the
place in which reading and ciphering alone are to be taught,
and the subsequent relations of the sexes is not to be that
of opposition and isolation. It seems then, to me, very
foolish, that men should attempt to prevent the occuri'ence
of injuries by kee])ing their children separated closely one

students' essays. 81

sex from the other. Two conntry people once caught two
young foxes and brought them home to domesticate; A put
his fox into a yard with domestic fowls ; while B kept his
closely hidden away from the sight of fowls, fearing that
the fox would catch them. But to the surprise of B, A's
fox did no harm to the fowls, but played with them, and
slept with them, though it grew big and strong. So B, fol-
lowing the example of A, let his fox loose and free among
the fowls that had been kept away from its eyes. But
again, to his surprise, his fox caught one of the fowls and
fled away with it. If we co-educate the sexes from their
youth, as A did his young fox and fowls, I am certain that
they will agree and dwell in concord, and no trouble wall
occur, provided the rules in the school are perfect and care-
fully observed. But if we sliould follow the policy of B, I
am afraid, or rather sure, that at the time when the sexes
reach their full age and are set free, the pic-nic and the
party will become a scene of wrong and a field of shame, as
when B's fox ran at large among the fowls of the yard.

ORIENTAL CIVILIZATION.

By Yashida Hicomaro

[ A Dissertation delivered at the Annual Exhibition at Monson Academy. This
student is probably better read in Latin and Greek than any other of the Japanese.
On account of his impaired health he was obliged to visit Europe, and has since
returned to Japan.]

Since the time when the world was proved to be spherical

in form, by its circumnavigation by Magellan, the terms

oriental and occidental have not been used with strictly

scientific accuracy ; for the United States of America are

east of Japan, and yet Japan is called an oriental nation,

though in fact it is occidental in relation to them.

4*

82 THE JAPA:srESE 11^ AMERICA.

iS^otwith Stan ding this geographical a,bsurdity in their ap-
plication, still these terms have, in histor}^ and literature, a
signification which is well enough understood, since the
term oriental designates those countries and whatever
belongs to them, which are south and east of the Black
Sea, while all Euroj^e and the American Continent are
spoken of as occidental.

It is an evident and remarkable fact, that, throughout the
East, a striking uniformity exists as to the type of civiliza-
tion called oriental, relating to ideas, customs, habits, and
manners, though it includes many different races, nation-
alities, and religions. So there is in the general character
of western or occidental civilization a general uniformity
which is verj'- evident.

Why there is that marked distinction in the character
of a people, which is expressed by these general terms of
locality, 1 cannot understand. The difference in the local
condition and character of mankind are infinite, and can-
not be determined definitely.

We know what changes are produced by the vicissitudes
of time ; but, notwithstanding the infinite diversity in the
condition of mankind, we know that human nature is the
same everywhere and always ; that there is unity in the
consciousness of mankind in all places alike ; and all are ani-
mated with love and hatred, with grief and fits of passion.

Men in every land have conscience, or the power to judge
what is riglit or wrong in acts. Integrity is as highly val-
ued in Japan as in the western nations. In the great cities
of the West, such as London, Paris, and Kew York, the
degraded classes are not unlike those who live in the great
emporiums of the East, such as Calcutta and Yeddo.

students' essays. 8:^

Persons not conscious or reflective, are apt to treat un-
fairly and unjustly, with conceited biases and prejudices,
such facts as these. Bound as I am by so much love and
sympathy for the oriental country to which I belong, I may
carry philosophy too far, and flatter too much the civiliza-
tion of the East ; and yet I cannot but regard the East as
beino' the cradle of civilization, and as the earliest source
of light of every kind which relates to the arts and
philosophy.

The eastern nations mirrored forth their intellectual life
before Greece and Rome began to exist, and long before
other European nations, whether Teutonic or Celtic, w^ere
anything but strictly barbarous, being buried in utter dark-
ness and ignorance. Long before the ages of improvement
in the West, the faculties of the mind, endowed by the Cre-
ator, w^ere not undervalued in the East. The metaphysical
speculations of India, and the theologico-philosophical doc-
trines of the Vedas, were not surpassed by the Greek or
Roman writers. The uninspired wisdom of Confucius made
the nearest approach to the divine morality of the gospel.
The rationalistic discourses of Loo reached a climax of
excellence. The pantheistic theory of the philosopher
Hagel was understood in the East very early.

It is certain that very long ago in the East there were
many theories, systems of philosophy battling each other
wdth various forms and principles, just as we now see these
conflicts going on to-day in the western world.

By this I infer that the theories of social life, and ideas
or opinions concerning philosophy, metaphysics, morality^
and theology must continue to battle each other as they
always have, from the earliest times ; that opinions and

84 THE JAPA5TESE I^ AMERICA.

systems will conquer and be conquered, will rise and fall
again and again, as the history of the human mind and hu-
man nature shows in all ages and countries, East and West.

We trust and earnestly hope that, by and by, this pro-
cess of struggles will bring all thinking minds into a cer-
tain equilibrium as to the matters of belief and right action,
though that end we have come far short of, as yet.

If we turn now and ask for reasons why Asia, long the
seat of so much mental activity and conflict, and the source
of so many systems of philosophy, should now be sunk into
such utter darkness, why the progress in philosophy made
in ancient time should now be checked, and why social life
in all its forms and institutions should now be confined, as it
w^ere, by mechanical rules, there are many reasons, of
course, to account for this ; such as despotic government,
the organization of caste, the vain formalities of social
etiquette, which are each and all especially paralyzing in
their influence, and so preventing the progress of civiliza-
tion. But the greatest, the most specific and essential
obstacle of all which retards and holds us back, is the total
absence of freedom in the spirit and in the mind of the
people. This lack of freedom has tended to the result
which in turn has beconie a great hindrance to pro-
gress, that is, a want of that flexible and versatile character
of mind which once so distinguished the Greeks, and is
not wanting among modern occidental nations. If this
want of flexibility and versatility must remain as the fault
of the eastern nations, then they must decay continually.
Social stagnation and utter decline is the great danger of
our people, unless they are shaken out of this lethargic con-
dition by some vehement convulsion.

students' essays. 85

We look to the western nations for this hoped-for
wakening power. The steamship, railway, and telegraph,
are pushing their mighty forces further and further into the
profundities of oriental life. The quickening effects of
western activity and enterprise are felt everywhere, and
are causing rapid and more surprising changes in many
respects. As to the final result, western influence on
the national character and civilization of the East no
doubt will work counter changes, and have great reactive
power. History has shown us that changes in civilization
have been intensely slow in their beginning, and often
very rapid in the latter stage of assimilation.

I firmly hope that the people of my native land will soon
incorporate many of the noble ideas and principles of the
western world into our own institutions ; especially that
we, as a nation, may be able to penetrate and understand
the eternal truth of God and his great providential scheme.
Then, I trust, our ancient civilization will become more
noble than ever before, and especially, so I trust, that
the great empires of the East will cherish and maintain a
magnanimous spirit, so that they may forget and forgive
every injustice long practised by some of the western na-
tions ; and also remember, with amity and good-will,
the kindness of those nations, especially the people of the
United States of America, who desire to do them good.

86 THE JAPAi^ESE I]S" AMERICA.

HISTORY OF JAPAN".

By T. Megata.

[The subjoined was delivered as a Lecture before the Lyceum of West Newton,
Massachusetts. Tanetarow Megata is about twenty years of age, and has been in
tliis country only since October, 1870. He speaks English very fluently, and writes
a neat, bold hand. He has here given the first lecture ever spoken by a Japanese
in this or any other land. His subject was " Japan, its History, Kecent Reforms,
and Present Social and Religious Condition."]

The great crusading army that, with the power of all
Europe, planted its cross in the East, brought back no news
from the extremest East. Marco Polo, the great traveller
in the thirteenth century, first mentioned the existence of
the islands lying in groups east of China, by the name of
Zipango. He says, in his great story, that the country is
fertile and abounds in gold, silver, and other valuable metals.
This was the first time that the existence of the islands came
to the knowledge of the world. Though in a later time the
Portuguese and Dutch came to the islands for trade, yet
there was no intercourse with other nations until about
nineteen years ago, when the doors that kept the nation
without being known to others were knocked at by the
hands of Commodore Perry, who was sent from this coun-
try to make a treaty of commerce with us. The name of
Japan, by which it is now known, arose from some mistake
among foreigners. The whole islands are known among the
natives by the name of Niphon, which is given by foreign-
ers to the largest island of the group. The real history of
the country 'goes as far back as 600 B.C., when there
reigned an emperor who, coming from the western part
of the country, subjected it entirely to his dominion, and
became the founder of the present dynasty of the Mikado.
Some time previous to this emperor there was another by

STUDEKTS' ESSAYS. 87

the loDg name of Ten-show Dai-jin, which means "the great
spirit of the celestial splendors." This emperor is believed
to be the true founder of the present dynasty of the Mi-
kado, as well as of the religion of Sinto. But his history
being old and obscure, we take the former for the first era
of the history of Japan. From this emperor, who reigned
as far back as 600 b.c, our present Mikado is descended.
The present Mikado is the 12'7th monarch of this noble
family. This is the singularity of our imperial family, and
causes us to respect it with utmost love. As for the relig-
ion of the country, there are several sects. First, Sinto ;
second, Buddhism : third, Confucianism ; the latter of
which can hardly be called a religion, as it does not teach
about the worship of any god. Of the rehgion of Sinto, its
founder was, as I said above, the Emperor Ten-show Dai-
jin. This old religion teaches about the worship of One
Supreme Being. Though it admits the worship of other
deities, yet it never makes idols. This religion has a great
resemblance to the Grecian mythology. Divine honors are
paid to meritorious emperors and other personages. Those
who taught this religion lived in the same way as the com-
mon people did. They had their houses near the divine
temple and attended its worship. But they are now abol-
ished. Their temples are left in ruin ; their estates have
been confiscated. Second is the Buddhist religion, which
Avas introduced from Corea during 439 a.d. It had once
a great power in the country. This religion is divided into
eight different sects, each difftsring in doctrine more or less,
but believing in the same faith.

The lecturer then gave a concise history of Japan from
the most remote periods to the recent revolution and the

88 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

changes introduced by the intercourse with foreigners. He
then continued : Since the revokition the institutions of our
Government have undergone a complete change, and now
resemble those of America or the other countries of Europe.
The Government is divided into eleven different depart-
ments. The Prime Minister and privy councils constitute
the Cabinet of the Mikado. The House of Representatives
is an important part of the Government. It is similar to
the Congress at Washington. Each province of the Em-
pire sends its delegates to the capital, as each State in this
country sends its delegates to Washington. Like India, or
some other country of Asia, the people of Japan w^ere
divided into a cert»nin number of castes. They were
divided into four different classes, viz. : First, military class ;
second, husbandmen or farmers ; third, mechanics and art-
ists ; fourth, merchants. Among these castes there existed
great distinctions of customs and feeling. Their occupa-
tions were hereditary. The son followed the occupation of
his father. Tlie military class used to enjoy more privi-
leges than the rest, and were supported by revenues paid by
their tenants. The class of husbandman or farmer ranked
higher than the otlier two. Different from other countries,
in Japan the resources of the Government and the people
were obtained from the taxes laid on the j^roducts raised by
the husbandman more than those on other articles of mer-
chandise. From tliese circumstances they ranked higher
than the other two classes. These distinctions of caste are
most disadvantageous in a nation. They create a different
feeling among them. During the last few years, however,
these things have been rapidly changing. The costume
of our people was rather peculiar. We wore long and

students' essays. 89

loose robes. The climate of the country being inild, our
clothes were rather for covering than protecting our bodies.
So it was a common thing for us to go out bareheaded.
There were few distinctions between the clothes of men and
vomen. The ceremony of marriage and death bore rather
different characters from those of other nations. In mar-
riage the most important thing is to get the consent of the
parents, or, in some cases, that of other relatives, without
which the law would not protect them. Before the mar-
riage both the bride and bridegroom choose a gentleman
and lady as the proposers of the marriage. Then a pres-
ent of a dry fish and some flax are exchanged between the
parties. This custom shows the simplicity in which our
forefathers lived, and warns both to live in liarmony and
frugality. At the appointed day the bride is taken to the
house of the bridegroom. The proposers of the parties pre-
side on the occasion. The chief ceremony is then per-
formed, viz. : the bridegroom takes a glass with drops of
wine and offers it to the bride, which is returned to him
again. After the ceremony a banquet is given, Avhich is
followed by music and dancing. The ceremony of the
burial of the dead is rather similar to that of other coun-
tries. The late political revolution has produced an entire
change in social affairs. The whole country has, since that
time, undergone a complete change. That strong feudal-
ism that had its sway over the country during the eight
centuries, was abolished in a single year without shedding
of blood. At the same time the power of the Mikado,
which was absolute before, became very much limited.
The reformation of education was made. Our Government
stimulates education by a sort of compulsory system, and

90 THE JAPAXESE IJT AMERICA.

sends out its students to foreign countries to bring back
the acquirements of others. At present there are about
400 or 800 students abroad pursuing their course of studies.
The building of raih'oads and telegraphs is encouraged.
The object of Europeanizing or Americanizing the country
is executed with rapid success. The changes which had
taken place during the last nineteen years, since the opening
of the country to foreign intercourse, are entirely new to
the eyes of the people who were born some thirty or forty
3^ears ago. When we knew not others, we felt ourselves
proud and superior ; but when we know them, we feel our
inferiority, and struggle to take the same step with them.
We owe much to the United States. The United States
was the country that entered first into a treaty with us ; or,
I say, that the United States was the country that awak-
ened us from our sleep. We are like a man who, waking
late from his sleep in the morning, goes to work hastily.
We have slept too much. But we have now waked up
from our long sleep. We are struggling to trace the same
road of civilization wherein you have advanced. Happy
will be Japan, when she attains her desire to teach the
highest degree of civilization for which she aims.

STUDENTS ESSAYS. "Ji

CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.
By Tozabro Hyash.

[The \vrit)er of the following account of the Christian religion hi Japan acquir-
ed his knowledge of the English language in America as well as Europe, nnd
after liis return to Japan, was employed as a clerk and interpreter at the American
Legation, in Yeddo. The facts communicated by him were drawn forth by a
request made by the American Minister, and by him transmitted to the Depart-
ment of State in Washington, in 1871.]

Ill reply to your request for me to state to you in brief
what I know about the history of Christianity in Japan,
and the present condition of native Christian converts, I
beg leave to state : That about the sixteenth century Chris-
tianity was propagated with so much success in the coun-
try, that the Tycoon, Nobunagaya himself, is said to have
confessed his belief in the faith. A certain essential part
of a castle is always built in imitation of the steeple of a
Christian church, which the chief of the castle at times
used as a place of worship. This part, which is called
" Tenshu," (meaning, dedicated to the Heavenly Lord,)
continued to be built long after the prohibition of Chris-
tianity in this empire, thus proving that this religion was
still, for some time, tolerated among natives.

The Christian missionaries, seeing their growing influence
over the consciences of the people, commenced to meddle
with the politics of the state, whereupon the Dutch warned
our people of the danger from this. Acting upon this sug-
gestion, the Government prohibited its propagation, and
compelled all foreigners, except the Dutch, to leave the
country.

At the siege, and subsequent fall of Osaca, the final vic-
tory of the ancestors of the Tokungawa family was gained,
and many leading officers who were in the city escaped to

92 THE JAPANESE IK A:MERICA.

Shniiabarra, near Nagasaki, where the people generally-
professed Christianity, and excited them to open insurrec-
tion, by deluding them into the belief that the Government
intended to prohibit Christian worship. Those people,
laboring under this delusion, rebelled against the Govern-
ment, and maintained their position for over two years ;
and soon after they were overcome they still continued to
be rebellious and fanatical, mixing their religious belief
with party spirit. This caused the Government to take
steps to prohibit this worship entirely throughout the
empire ; therefore, on this account, and not on account of the
belief itself, it was prohibited. This is further proved to
have been the motive by the fact that Buddhism was not
also prohibited, which is not the faith of the Mikado, he
beino' Sintoo in his faith. These thinsjs occurred about the
year 1630.

At the time Commodore Perry entered Yeddo, the
Tycoon made the treaty with him in opposition to the sen-
timents of the several of the great daimios, who, having
long been jealous of the Tokungawa clan (of which the
Tycoon was a member), took advantage of the anti-foreign
sentiment of the people, then prevailing, and pretending
also to make war to uphold the religion of the Mikado,
rebelled against and overthrew the Tycoon, and put his
majesty, the Mikado, on the throne in his stead. In fact, they
made use of the Mikado as a puppet, to execute their desires
in his name, and seemingly by his authority.

The present Government, owing to its declarations, was
necessarily severe against any who followed any foreign
religion. Against those who professed Buddhism — which
being generally professed in the Empire — they took meas-

students' essays. 03

ures only against the priests, who were deprived of many
privileges hitherto granted to them.

Whatever promises may have been made by it relative
to the mild treatment accorded to native converts, their
punishment continues to be severe and cruel.

Under the late Government the punishment was the cru-
cifixion of the convert, but by the law of this Government
the punishment extends over eight families, to wit : parents,
grandparents, elder and younger brothers and sisters,
uncles, aunts, sons, daughters, grandchildren, and male
and female cousins of the convert, and is death. It cer-
tainly has done away with the punishment by crucifixion,
but simply doing this can hardly be called mild treatment.

Those converts who were imprisoned year before last
would have been killed according to this law, but for the
remonstrances of the foreign representatives. They are
yet kept in close confinement.

In reply to your request for me to give you the definition
of the term " Meidi," I have to say : The Emperor of Japan
gives a certain title to the year when he ascends the throne,
and thus counts the years of his reign as first, second,
third, fourth, etc., of such title. Formerly, if there occur-
red during the course of his reign any great calamities,
such as great earthquakes, famines, tempests, etc., he would
change the title, and commence to count the years anew
from that time, thinking the title unfortunate and produc-
tive of bad results. This superstition was originally intro-
duced here from China about one thousand two hundred
years ago. The usage has been so long in force here
that the people have become accustomed to it. " Meidi " is

94 THE JAPAi^ESE IIT AMERICA.

the title given to the year by the present Emperor at his suc-
cession to the throne, which was four years ago, this being
the fourth year of " Meidi."

By the present law of this empire, our Emperor is not
allowed to name the year but once during his reign ; there-
fore the present title " Meidi," which means " peace," after
enlightened manners, will continue until the present Em-
peror dies.

THE STRENGTH AND THE WEAKNESS OF REPUBLICS.
By E. R. Enotjye.

The republican form of government is now generally
conceded to be " theoretically the best," but its claim to be
also the strongest is still disputed, or at least not yet firmly
established. The Declaration of Independence by the Ameri-
can Colonies, the French Revolution, and various impor-
tant subsequent events, until the present time, all unite in
proclaiming to the nations of the world the right of a peo-
ple to govern itself, and by so doing demonstrated clearly
the absurdity of the divine rights of the kings to rule.

The whole political heaven is, as it were, being charged
with republican electricity. The explosion will come
sooner or later. Meanwhile, the diffusion of intelligence
among the people makes them more enlightened and more
jealous of their rights than ever before ; despots tremble on
their thrones, and as they make concessions most reluctantly,
most readily do the people call for more. Judging from such
circumstances, it would appear that all the nations of the
world, as if by common consent, are converging rapidly
toward that point where Republicanism reigns supreme.

STUDENTS' ESSAYS. 95

It is then a matter of the utmost importance to us to
endeavor to discover in what lie the strength and the
weakness of republics.

Nothing is more plain than the theory of a republican
government.

There is a body politic composed of so many citizens.
It is an impossibility for the members of a State to assem-
ble in a body to make their laws ; hence they elect a certain
number of the citizens as their representatives, who trans-
act business for the whole people.

In a republic, every citizen is interested in any measure
before the government, and it would be safe to set this
down as one of the great elements of strength.

The government is influenced, to a great extent, not by
the opinions of a king, or, what is worse, those of a few
ambitious politicians, but by the mighty voice of an almost
infallible people. It is evident that the government thus
situated will be more faithful in the execution of its duties
than in monarchical countries, where the character of the
government depends a good deal on the disposition of the
sovereign. Another strong point in a republic, is the
bicameral feature of its government. One body acts as a
check on another, and, if their characters are different, for
instance, the first radical, and the second conservative,
the course of legislation will be neither too progressive,
with which the people cannot keep pace, nor so conserva-
tive as to interfere with the enterprises of the country.
The right to struggle for fame, for learning, and wealth, is
the grandest heritage of humanity, and this right is most
scrupulously respected in almost all the republican coun-
tries of the present day; hence, the poorest and humblest

96 THE JAPANESE IK AMERICA.

can have fair play to become superior in position to any-
other.

This state of things keeps the people ever in activity.

We can hardly think it otherwise. In whatever direction
an individual may go, his energies for the advancement of
his position in life, his actions, are fettered by no arbitrary
laws, but, on the other hand, every encouragement is given
to him for the success of his enterprise. If, thus favorably
situated, men are poor, it is no fault of the government, but
their own. What, perhaps, exerts a most powerful influence
in the affairs of the republic is undoubtedly a spirit of com-
petition. Tlie highest honors of the State are within reach
of the meanest citizen. Men love honor, and we are sorry
to add, they love wealth and power just as much as honor,
if not more ; hence the perpetual struggle for the offices of
the country. As a very few succeed, they will be qualified
for their posts, at least intellectually, if not morally. We
said perhaps not morally, because, in the tortuous way
which a politician takes to the object of his ambition, he too
often treads on the grounds which are clearly forbidden by
his conscience. The government composed of such mate-
rials cannot fail to be strong. If the government of the
Jacobins was guilty of the most atrocious deeds, it was be-
yond all question the most energetic body which France,
perhaps the world, ever saw. In order to appreciate the
enormous amount of work which that body accomplished,
we must hastily glance at the position of France at that
time.

The whole circuit of France was begirt with enemies.
Disunion within and difficulties without did not stop here.
Her commerce was destroyed by the invincible navy of

students' essays. 97

Great Britain. The provisions were scarce. Never was a
country in such an appaUing condition. How they encoun-
tered and overcame these difficulties we shall not discuss.
If we go back a few years in the history of the world, we
shall find the true strength of republicanism displayed in the
American war. We do not purpose to look at that memo-
rable contest in all its bearings, but will content ourselves
with an observation illustrating one of the secrets of the
success of the Americans. Every historian has dwelt with
enthusiasm on the retreat of Washington through New Jer-
sey with a few thousand of the barefooted and famishing
soldiers. Was it the devotion to their illustrious com-
mander which enabled those brave men to encounter so
cheerfully the manifold dangers of that disastrous campaign ?

No, noble Washington did much, but the real strength of
the army lay in the fact, that every soldier was also a citi-
zen, imbued with a hatred of the tyrant, and conscious of
fighting in the cause of freedom and humanity.

When we see so much dignity in common soldiers, we
shall not be dazzled by the sublime sj^ectacle of the Revo-
lutionary Congress defying the power of the strongest
nation in the world, often fleeing before the victorious foe,
yet firm and unyielding, and, at last, after a long struggle,
giving the country a glorious peace, and placing her by the
side of the proudest nations of the world !

Thus far, we have looked at the strong sides of the re-
public. Now we shall investigate some of the causes of its
weakness. "When you assemble a number of men to have
the advantage of their joint wisdom, you inevitably assem-
ble with those men all their prejudices, their passions, their
errors of opinion, their local interests and selfish views."

5

98 THE JAPAls'ESE IK AMERICA.

The history of every republic too clearly illustrates the
above remarks of Franklin. Grant that all the legislators
chosen are conscientious men; they determine to be true
to their sacred trust. But alas ! they do not, nay, cannot,
agree as to the best method of promoting the interests of
their constituents, for nothing is dearer to a man than his
theory ; and especially is this true of such upright men as
we suppose them to be. And then, a particular member,
in pleading the cause of his constituents, may badly inter-
fere with carrying out of a measure which will be benelicial
to the whole people as a nation. It may be contended that
the majority will rule ; but, if our supposed member happen
to be also an influential man, he may so exert his powers
as to cause the very majority to enter into his views.

Now, for the working of the machinery of the govern-
ment by such persons. A good deal of valuable time is
consumed in making a law for, not saying of the various
forms being attended to ; the members advance their respec-
tive opinions, some of which are at direct variance with
one another. It may be all right in a time of profound
peace, but there are times when the destinies of a state
depend on the passing moments. To deliberate under such
circumstances will not only be foolish, but ruinous. To
remedy this evil, the ancient Romans found it necessary to
create the office of dictator. We have hastily glanced at
the bright side of the republican institution, and, as regards
its strength, we are not very well satisfied with our obser-
vation.

This is the case when we supposed that all the legislators
are honest and sagacious men. Throwing this Utopian
vision aside, let us look at the stern realities.

students' essays. 99

In the first place, it will be admitted that the officers of
a republic are not always the best and ablest men of the
land, but that they sometimes are the most cunning, per-
haps the most unprincipled.

By the most unprincipled, we refer to that class of poli-
ticians called demagogues. These persons rarely succeed
in securing the confidence of the respectable portion of the
people, and when they do so, they cannot retain it long.

To the mere o'utsiders, they would seem to be wholly
incapable of doing any serious injury to the state. But
when we study the effect of their proceedings, we shall be
very likely to change our opinion. Too often have the
glories of the state been tarnished by the disgraceful con-
duct of these men, too often their impudence, vulgarity,
and recklessness have so prevented an enlightened states-
man from carrying out his plans, that they deserve to be
set down as at once worse than traitors.

At the head of this class of men stands Alcibiades, the
name closely connected with the events which resulted
in the ruin of the Athenian greatness. Lavishly endowed
by nature with the qualities of a great soldier and states-
man, the darling of the Athenian democracy, graceful and
beautiful, in fact, with all the means of being the first
man and the greatest benefactor of his country, he proved
himself its meanest trickster, its most mischievous citizen.
In a republic, a constant change of officers exerts a very
baneful influence, and is the cause of bitter political and
party strife. Thus there can be no stability in the govern-
ment. And the stability, it must be remembered, is an
important element of the strength.

Beholdino; a republic with her weakness and streno^th

1055221!

100 THE JAPAis'ESE IK AMERICA.

before us, and a monarchy with hers in the same position,
we shall fear the latter as our enemy, for she is strong, but
the former we shall love as we love the truth ; we shall
encourage as we would an inexperienced youth, for her
strength is not yet as fully developed as that of her elder
sister, monarchy !

JAPANESE COSTUME.

By N. Kanda.

It is not uncommon for both nobility and peasantry in
Japan to walk in the street without wearing anything on
their heads, while the Europeans wear hats or caps out of
doors. But, in the summer, when the sun is very hot, only
the men wear large rounded hats about a foot and a half
in diameter, to protect their faces from being burnt by the
sun. And the women carry parasols which are always
made of paper, and often men carry them too. They have
two kinds of umbrellas, one for protecting them from the
hot sun in the summer, and the other for the rainy weather,
called an " amagasa," which is also made of paper, and
afterwards spread over Avith a certain oil, and dried. In
the cold winter days, the men and women wear almost the
same kind of covering over their heads. They are some-
times made of soft crape and sometimes of camlet, and are
made in different styles. But one of them I will explain.
This is made in the shape of a Shaker-bonnet, only not so
stiff, and it has a little longer cape. Now, I will describe
how the men dress their hair as well as I can. It is a
good deal longer and coarser than that of the European.

They keep it long, for they want to arrange it, and
coarse, because they shave their fine hair in childhood.

students' essays. 101

The hair of the men is generally arranged by a barber
once in two days, with a quantity of hair-oil, and so they
don't comb their hair every morning. It is almost of
equal length, and is tied or arranged in an indescribable
manner, and it is commonly shaved off the width of two
inches from the forehead to the top of the head, which is
generally done at the age of fifteen. The hair of the
women is gathered, and tied in bunches, smaller than those
of the Europeans. And they tie around it beautifully
dyed crapes and red corals, and stick through it, from one
end to the other, the long four-cornered tortoise-shell pin,
made by putting a number of them together, and warming
and pressing them, till the whole appears like one pin of
shell, and it is then polished. I have now written all about
their heads, and I will next speak of their bodies.

There is not much difference in the shape of the common
dresses of the ladies and gentlemen. But there is a differ-
ence in the noble ladies' dresses, which have trails like
those of the European ladies. But, of course, there is a
difference in the materials, almost as much as there is in
the Europeans'.

The dresses are made very long, which are about as long
as the length of the vest and pants, and are twice as wide
as the common European coat. The sleeves are like large
flowing sleeves, only sewed about half-way up to the arms,
forming a pocket. The dresses are made of different mate-
rials, according to the different ranks. The dress of the
nobility is sometimes made of silk, and sometimes of crape,
while the people of the lower class wear dresses of calico,
or something of the kind. Both nobility and peasantry
wear belts of different material around their w^aists, as the

102 THE JAPAN"ESE I2f AMERICA.

former and latter wear different* dresses. It is a kind of
sash, being about four yards long, and about four inches
wide. It is doubled and stiffened.

Japanese did not wear such tight-sleeved under-shirt
as is now generally worn. However, it was their own cus-
tom to wear a kind of drawers under their robes in the
winter. It was generally made of silk or a cheaper mate-
rial, and was dyed dark-purple, or gray, or some other
colors, but never white, nor red, nor any light color. They
wear socks of cotton, which are generally fastened to feet
by means of strings or clasp. The women always wear
white socks, and the men wear very dark purple-colored
ones. It is made so that big toe is separated from the
rest of the toes, in order to hold between them a thong,
by which the shoes are fastened to feet. There are many
kinds of shoes, almost as many as there are in America.
The general name for articles worn on their feet is " haki-
mono." Under the head of " haki-mono," there are " ama-
geta," which means rainy shoes, and are worn in rainy
weather only. They are only made little higher than
those which are worn in clear weather; and " hiyori-geta,"
which are worn in clear weather, and " koma-geta," which
tire also worn in clear weather. "Koma-geta" is like
those mentioned before, made of wood, but of one piece
of wood, and cut into the shape of the shoes mentioned
before. They are both made without anything on, and
with mats of ratan made for the purpose. "Zori," which
are made of straw only, are always worn in dry weather,
and are worn generally by attendants when they go along
with their masters. " Setta," which are worn by both
nobility and peasantry, are made better than "zori,"

students' essays. 103

though it is also made of straw, and have leather of some
animal under them.

A FATHER'S LETTER
By G. Neero.

[Giobu Neero is the name of a gentleman who resides in the Province of Satsuma
Japan, and who was formerly a Cabinet Minister under the Prince of that famous
province. He belongs to a noted family, and was one of the first men in that Em.
pire who advocated a change in the policy of the nation, from a state of semi-bar-
barism to one of civilization. He took no part in the Jate Japanese Revolution,
and has never been anxious to be connected with the general government. In
18ti5, on account of his high character and rare abilities, he was commissioned by
his Government to take charge of sixteen young Japanese boys, with whom he
visited Europe, and whom he located at various institutions of learning. One
of those boys is the present charge d'affaires from Japan, Mr. Arinori Mori. On
his return to Japan, Giobu Neero immediately arranged to send his son to France
to be educated, and the following letter, written in the latter part of 1871, was sent
to that son by his devoted and noble-minded father. It was originally written in
the charactor-as well as letter-language of Japan, and the present is a literal
translation.]

I have received your letter dated February 19, IS'Zl. I am
greatly pleased to learn of your progress in educational
matters and health. It was unlike the former letter. It
seems that you have come to know that I do not like to
receive from you presents and the like, and this accords
with ray views precisely. You have said nothing about
the great war. This shows that you are earnest in your
studies, and it is my sincere hope that you should so con-
tinue. It is now five years since I have seen you. As you
have reached your sixteenth year, it is proper for me, at
this epoch of your life, when you are entering upon the
more important objects of your career, to address you with
kindest feeling. First, it is a parental duty that a man
should sacrifice his beloved son for the sake of his country.
Regretting that we have no proper educational system in
Japan, I have had fears that my son might grow up with-

104 THE JAPAis^ESE IK AMERICA.

out education. It was quite unexpected that I should have
been appointed to go abroad in the Spring of 1865.
During the vo3^age I witnessed an incident at Singapore,
which I will relate. There were among the passengers a
husband and wife, with three children under seven years
of age ; they had embarked in our mail-steamer, and when
it was announced as ready to depart this husband and wife
were in utter distress, with sad faces and many tears. The
wife remained on the steamer with the children, while the
husband had to return to the shore, in a sorrowful state of
mind. At the sight of this, two hundred and fifty passen-
gers were struck with grief. There was a perfect silence,
as all on board knew the circumstances ; but our Japanese,
although strangers among foreigners, and having no knowl-
edge of the language, were influenced to sympathize with
the party, and we also shed tears. I asked one of the
passengers as to the particulars, and he told me that this
family were Dutch ; they had been staying a long time in
Singapore, and their children were born in that j^lace.
The parents having determined that their children should
receive a good education in their native land of Holland,
and knowing that Singapore was not the proper place for
them, their object was to educate their children so that
they might love them more, and so they had sacrificed all
their affections and comfort and pleasure for them. This
struck me with great force. Even a small nation like Hol-
land was so anxious to have her children educated, and
Holland knov\'S her children would do great things. Tliis
influence induced the husband to be satisfied with parting
from his wife and sacrificing his happiness. Thus, I came
to appreciate those gi-eat western nations, like England

STUDEi>!'TS' ESSAYS. 105

and France, where civilization has attained the highest
point, and where there is no lack of education ; and it was
then I determined to send my son to those countries. I
arrived in London after a voyage of more than two months,
and I employed the time, when not engaged in official
business, in the cause of education, and I learned the real
condition of it, which was all wonderful to me. I solved
the whole problem in regard to the education of my son.
As I thought England and France were like two hands,
left and right, both essential to civilization, I thought I
would send my two sons, one to each of these countries.
But, during my stay in London, the sad news reached me
that your brother had died, and my grief was great. My
mind was then wholly set upon yourself alone. It was my
great anxiety to find a teacher for you. I met a French
gentleman, Mr. Montblanc, and I told him my views, and
that I desired you should be acquainted with political
economy chiefly. He understood me well, and assured me
he would do his best for you. The above is a brief history
of my anxiety and efforts in your behalf.

You were not sent abroad to come back soon, certainly
not before the accomplishment of your education. I desire,
after you have finished your studies, that you should visit
different countries and places in enlightened Europe. You
should also visit Pekin, in China, when you return. I am
not satisfied with your knowledge of the French alone,
but you should also become acquainted with the English
language. All these particulars Mr. M. understood and
agreed to fulfill.

Second. When I returned home from Europe I begged
my parents to send you abroad, and it was gratifying to me

106 THE JAPAJq'ESE IJ^^ A^klERICA.

that they were so deeply interested, and granted their
consent at once. It was not only a blessing to you alone,
but to me also. You were then only eleven j^ears old, and
you had no knowledge of my earnest desire. There was a
strong effort made to stop the movement by friends and
relatives, because of your age, and also because of the
recent loss of my second son. But I succeeded with great
difficulty in appeasing their anxiety. It Avas indeed the
blessing of heaven that you could leave home and could
go over the sea ten thousand miles away for such a pur-
pose. This should be borne in your mind deeply.

Third. The principal object of education is to do our
most for the benefit of one's country. We use Chinese
characters in our country to a great extent, and the let-
ters we have are also derived from the Chinese. As those
Japanese you meet abroad will use Japanese or Chinese,
and it will be inconvenient for you not to understand them,
it was my great fear that you might be induced to think
you should learn those languages in order to become ac-
quainted with Japanese affairs. This is a most important
time for you. You should be aware of the great object
of the future, and not to be occupied in trifling. You
should have your whole mind on western education. It
will not be too late for you to learn Japanese and Chinese
after your return home. It is of the utmost importance
that you should not be confused on this subject.

Fourth. For the few communications I have made to
you there is some reason. It is from my deep love for you.
It is quite natural for one who is still young to think of
home when he is in a distant land, but communications
from home do more harm than good, because they are apt

107

to excite the feelings, and hence disturh your studies. You
parted with your mother when you were not quite three
years old, and have been brought up since in my bosom
alone. How could my love for you, under such circum-
stances, be less intense ? You should not mistake me for
so rarely communicating with you.

Fifth. Your cousin in London felt lonesome and wished
to have another Japanese for a companion. This, to me,
was a great mistake, and I will avoid it in your case. You
should carefully remember that you have gone abroad for
a great purpose. You are expected to have, therefore, the
highest aims in regard to the future. It impressed me
deeply when I learned that Napoleon Bonaparte, when
very young, was asked by his mother about his object in
life, and said, " that he would like to have all the historical
parts of the world in his mind, and to go from one end of
the world to the other with a single sword." His age was
not then more than yours. I think this is a very good
thing for you to consider.

Sixth. I have heard that you told Mr. Mayeda you in-
tended soon to return to Japan. What was your reason
for this ? The object for which I sent you abroad is already
stated fully. I shall only be delighted to hear of your
return after you have fully finished your education ; there
could be no greater satisfaction to me. I fear that what
you said was the result of truant thoughts of home. You
have to direct your whole attention to hasten the ac-
complishment of your education. This is the only thing
you need. Your last letter to me informs me how you
advance, and it is my greatest expectation to see the full
. development of your capacities. You will try to bear this

108 THE JAPAN'ESE IIT AMERICA.

important idea in your mind. I have read your letter over
and over, and I felt as if you were talking to me face to
face ; and I hope this letter will be the same to you, and
that my deep-felt and sole desire for your education will be
remembered forever.

THE MEMORABLE YEAR.
By E. R. Enouye.

The sun of 1871 is fast sinking below the horizon. Before
we lose sight of it entirely, let ns review the important
events with which this year is so closely united.

We are not yet recovered from the shock which we at
first experienced in witnessing the utter humiliation of one
of the most haughty of the great powers of Europe, or sur-
prise at the glorious triumph of her hereditary foe ; or the
sudden brightening up of the sky Avhere we saw, in the
direction of England, nothing but the dark clouds of war;
or, still later, the horror which seized us all at the cry of
despair from the west in our own country. We begin our
remarks with the closing scene in the Franco-Prussian war.
Notwithstanding the assurances of fiery Gambetta, France
has finally lost all hope in the prosecution of a successful
struggle. As to Trochu in Paris, he is entirely powerless,
and all that he is trying to do seems to be the postpone-
ment of the inevitable surrender. The cry of despair rises
i'rom all quarters. Something must be done or all will be
lost. At this juncture Bourbaki makes the last effort for
France, but fails signally before Belfort, and his shattered
army saves itself from annihilation by taking refuge in
peaceful Switzerland. Almost simultaneously with this
event, the army of the North, in spite of the strenuous

STUDE]S"TS' ESSAYS. 109

exertion of its brave commander, Faiderbe, is utterly de-
feated ; wbile the army of the Loire, beaten in detail, has
no prospect of offering any resistance to the foe. To com-
plete the catastrophe, Paris falls with a tremendous crash.
On the other hand, the Germans, triumphant even beyond
their expectation, proceed to reconstruct the fabric of their
ancient empire. It lasted one thousand years from its
foundation, and having been overthrown by the genius of
the great Napoleon, it was thus eventually restored to
more than its former greatness by the incapacity of his
nephew. King William was crowned the Emperor of Ger-
many in the palace of Versailles.

But where is the sovereign whose dream it was to march
to Berlin, dictate peace, return with a large portion of ter-
ritory secured by triumph over a fallen foe, and as a re-
ward for this service to France was to ask her to tolerate
his son on the throne which he usurped ? The answer is a
sad but conclusive one. He is a lone exile in a foreign
land. When, in October, 1870, Prince Gortschakoff" issued
his notes on the Treaty of Paris, it almost amounted to
the declaration of war. It recites the successive viola-
tions of European treaties, among them that of 1857.
Russia wished to increase her defensive j^ower, especially
in the Black Sea, hence she disavowed her obligation to
the limited enjoyment of the empire, and invited the Sul-
tan to enjoy equal rights with her. England would have
gone to war, but, not to speak of her own decline in
power, her trusted ally was utterly prostrated. As to her
other ally in the Crimean war, the King of Italy, he had
enough to do at home.

Nothing could be expected from either terrified Turkey or

110 THE JAPAI^ESE IK A:MEEICA.

incapable Austria. At this state of affairs, it was agreed
that a conference between the great powers of Europe
should decide all the differences. This congress, which
assembled in London, in the early part of this year, grati-
fied every wish of Russia. She has already turned this to
account in the furthering of her own interests. She has
built many ships of war, and the work is still going on
with great energy.

Sebastopol, Odessa, and other principal ports of the
Black Sea are being fortified with great care. We know
what all this means, namely, the capture of Constantinople
ultimately, and the absolute supremacy of Russia in the
councils of European nations afterward. x\mong the
events which have taken place in England, the most im-
portant has been the abolition of the purchase-system in
the army. Taught by the example of France, and fearing
a collision with Germany, she proceeded to put her forces
in good condition, which was impossible as long as that
absurd custom existed. This was not accomplished with-
out opposition. It almost resulted in the fall of the min-
istry of Mr. Gladstone. Next, we turn to Italy. Rome is
taken by the Italian army, and the temporal power of the
Pope is forever gone. All in good time Rome is made the
national capital, and that dream of illustrious Cavour, the
unification of Italy, is now complete.

Anarchical Spain next claims our attention. In the Duke
of Aosta she found her king, but scarcely does he find
himself on the shore of Spain ere Marshal Prim, the sol-
dier to whom, he owed his thronC; falls by the hands of
assassins. Ministry after ministry is formed, all to no pur^
pose. Much may be said of her condition, but we will

stude:n^s' essays. Ill

leave young Amadeus to struggle alone with his destiny,
and turn our attention again to Paris.

Paris, fighting against whole France, presented us with
the spectacle of a ship frozen amid the ice of the polar
sea, and its crew, without the means of wintering there,
engaged in a desperate contest with nature itself. Such a
state of things cannot long continue. Although the pro-
visional government was obliged to temporize at the
beginning of this mad revolt, as soon as it rallied its
forces it acted with firmness, and punished the insurgents
to their hearts' content. The last hours of the Commune
of Paris were disgraced by their wanton destruction of
those great works of art of which Paris was so justly
proud. Well might Madame Roland exclaim, '' Oh, Lib-
erty, how many crimes are committed in thy name ! " By
the fall of France, the republican government is firmly
established in France, /or the time heing. We dare not
speculate on her future. Who is her president ? M. Thiers,
the ex-minister of Louis Philippe ! This is not an encourag-
ing prospect for France.

Besides, are there not the Bourbonists, the Orleanists,
and the Bonapartists, madly engaged in their selfish in-
trigues ? Her destiny depends a great deal on her presi-
dent. It will be a real blessing to her if M. Thiers proves
himself a Washington to France, but w^e have reason to
fear he will be another Talleyrand, who treated his enemies
as if they might be his friends in future, and vice versa.
In America the San Domingo question is agitating the
public mind. The president, although he has often declared
that he has no policy opposed to the will of the people,
seems determined on annexing the island to the United

112 THE JAPAl^ESE IN AMERICA.

States, but he is not supported by the people at large.
The excitement was becoming greater and greater, when
the Administration yielded the point, and the subject was
dropped, for the time being ; because the West Indies, by
their situation, are unmistakably destined at no distant day
to form the outposts of this grand republic. The San
Domingo question lost much of its importance on account
of the Alabama claims, which sought the attention of the
nation. This difficulty, together with the so-called fishery
question, was the cause of much feeling between the United
States and Great Britain. It threatened a war between
the two nations ; but, after protracted preliminary negotia-
tions, in which the recriminations, evasions, and " assurances
of the distinguished considerations " were curiously inter-
mixed, it was agreed that the Joint High Commission
should settle all the diiferences. The result of their labors
was the Treaty of Washington, which is justly considered
one of the triumphs of modern civilization. By its pro-
visions the Tribunal of Arbitration is shortly to assemble
in Geneva, Switzerland. This august court is composed
of the members appointed respectively by the United
States, Great Britain, Brazil, Italy, and Switzerland. We
have every reason to believe that the difficulty will be sat-
isfactorily settled.

An event which called forth expressions of sympathy
from every quarter is the great fire at Chicago, which
almost destroyed that empire city of the West. We all
know how the conflagration was caused by an accident,
how the strong wind rendered futile the efforts of its gal-
lant firemen, how the thousands of people were made home-
less, how the world poured its beautiful charity into the

students' essays. 118

devastated city. A circumstance which is particularly
deservino' of notice is that its inhabitants, nothing^ daunted
by the magnitude of their calamity, set themselves at once
to the work of reconstruction. Speaking of the Chicago
fire, we should not overlook that great fire which raged in
the forests of some of the western States.

The completion of the Mont Cenis tunnel is one of the
greatest triumphs of scientific engineering, and an event
which well-nigh reconciles us to this year, which has been
so full of calamities to mankind. The honor of this great
achievement l)elongs unitedly to Louis Napoleon, Emperor
of France, and Count Cavour, the Prime Minister of Victor
Emanuel. Cavour's immediate object was to establish
perfect means of intercourse between two divisions of the
kingdom over which his sovereign then ruled ; but its
importance to Europe, especially France, was so manifest,
that the French government agreed to pay half the expense,
which is about thirty million dollars. It was commenced
in 1857, and completed in September of this memorable
year. Its length is seven and one-half miles. It was well
France shared the expense, for, by the Treaty of Villa
Franca, Napoleon III. wrested from Sardinia the rich prov-
ince of Savoy, which is one of the divisions previously
referred to, as a compensation for the aid to her in the
Austrian war. At the advent, this year was enveloped
in the thick clouds of war. One by one they have dis-
appeared. Now, sinking beneath the western horizon, she
sends us her farewell light in the forms of many scientific
improvements and higher civilization ; but alas ! a cloud
still obscures a spot on the earth's surface, over which are
written the words, " The Eastern Question.''^

114 THE JAPANESE IX AMEEICA.

GEORGE WASHINGTON.
By N. Kanda.
George Washington, who was a great patriot, and the
first President of the United States, was born in Westmore-
land, in the eastern part of the State of Virginia, on tlie
22d of February, 1732. His father was a rich man,
but Washington received only the usual education which
any one could receive in this country at that time. He
might liave been sent to Europe to receive a further educa-
tion if he had wanted to. Washington knew the French
language, which he learned after he became a general, for
the purpose of talking with the French soldiers who were
sent here to unite with the Army of Independence. Wash-
ington was a very good surveyor. When he was but six-
teen years of age, he was employed in surveying the great
wilderness near the x^lleghany mountains, belonging to his
relation, Lord Fairfax. Before he was twenty years old, he
was made one of the important officers in the army, called
Adjutant-General. When he was about twenty-two years
old he became an important general in the war of English
and French, in America, of 1754, which war lasted for six
years, from 1754 until 1760. When the war closed, the
Americans hoped that there would be better times, as a
new king had ascended the throne, whose name was George
the Third. Because, at those times, the governors of the
colonies were sent from England, and they oppressed them
very much with strict laws. But instead of better times
came more troublous times, as follows : During the war
just ended the king spent all the money he had, and he
asked his advisers how he might get more. Then his ad vis-

students' essays. 115

ers said, " Tax the Americans, for they are rich and will
not mind it/' And men were sent from England to col-
lect taxes. But the people murmured about paying taxes,
and disliked them. James Otis, a great patriot of Massa-
chusetts, advised the people not to pay a penny. So the
king could not get much money. Therefore the king
and his advisers made another law to take the money from
the Americans, called " The Stamp Act." But this failed
also, by the advice to the people by a great patriot, named
Patrick Henry. And again the king and his advisers
tried another way to get money, which was to make Amer-
icans pay taxes on any tea, paper, glass, painters' colors,
etc., brought in ships from England. And, knowing that
the Americans would not like to pay, they sent soldiers to
compel the people to pay. And this made the Americans
very angry. The people in many colonies drove their gover-
nors away, and said to the king and his advisers, " We are
all ready to tight for freedom ; send your soldiers as much
as you please." So the Americans now began to strive
for freedom.

The first battle for independence was fought in Lex-
ington, near the city of Boston, Massachusetts, on the
19th of April, 1775. They appointed George Washing-
ton to be Commander-in-Chief, and several other great patri-
ots as his assistants. Washington first took the command
of the army under the elm-tree, still standing, in Cam-
bridge, near Boston, on the 3d of July, 1775. The army
was made up of all kinds of people. Their dresses were
not uniform, nor were their weapons alike, but some had
pitchforks, and some poles, etc. Washington soon changed
their dresses and weapons, and made them soldiers.

116 THE JAPANESE IN" AMERICA.

On the 4tli day of July, 1776, tlie "Declaration of In-
dependence " was agreed in the State House, Philadelphia.
So every year on that day, the bells are rung in the morn-
ing and at night, and guns are fired. Boys fire crackers
from morning till night. After the independence was
declared, hard wars continued for eight years in many dif-
ferent places, from 1775 till 1782.

George Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the
army all through the war, and gained a great many victo-
ries over the British, in many places. He was a great gen-
eral, and a very brave soldier. When the Americans
became independent they thought they must have some-
body to govern them, so they chose Washington to be
their Chief Ruler or President; and John Adams was
chosen Vice-President.

Washington was inaugurated the first President of the
United States on the 30th of April, 1789.

After faithfully governing the people for eight years, he
retired from his ofiice on the 4th of March, 1797, and
went to his home on Mount Vernon, and lived there qui-
etly until the 14th of December, 1799, and he died. His
tomb is in Mount Vernon, near his old house, which is yet
standing.

students' essays. 117

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS.
By E. R. Enouye.
It may be universally affirmed that, in every country,
public schools were established long after the people were
fairly started on their road to civilization. Prior to this
period, such learning as was known to the country was
chiefly in the hands of priests. At last, a long series of
bloody wars has ceased ; what had been mere clusters of
tents and rude huts are now replaced by more substantial
villages and cities ; men leave the implements of war for
those of agriculture and other useful industries : in fact,
all is peace throughout the country. Education of the
young no longer consists in mere physical culture, and in
the art of war ; but some attention begins to be paid to
the cultivation of their mental faculties. Now, for the
first time, we shall find private schools established, mainly
under the auspices of priests, where children of the wealthy
are educated. The time intervening between this period
and the appearance of public schools, of course varies
with difierent countries, but in all cases are full of most
important events in the history of the mind of man.

It would be a very interesting task to investigate these
stages of progress, but, as the object of our present essay
is merely to discuss the merits of public and private schools,
an elaborate history of their origin will not be attempted.
Suffice it, then, to say that, by degrees, the diffusion of
intelligence among the people demands better facilities for
education than that hitherto afforded by private schools ;
hence the establishment of public institutions of learning.
The design of private schools is to secure to the young a

118 THE JAPAiq"ESE IN AMERICA.

thorough learning in every needed department of science,
when such opportunities would not be secured by public
institutions.

At the present day, most private schools are founded on
the principles of home discipline.

When a child enters a private school, he is, to a certain
extent, severed from his own home,, and home authority is,
in this case, transferred to the school. Henceforth, he is
to be treated as one of the children of the principal.

As he who can aiford to send his child to a private
school must be a man of some property, the child in ques-
tion will find himself in comparatively limited, and at the
same time quite a select, company. By a select company,
I do not mean the individuals composing it will be by
nature more morally disposed than the same number else-
where are likely to be, but that characterized by the ab-
sence of common vulgarity, which is invariably found in
most public schools. Though the company is thus small,
yet it is sufficiently large to enable one to form some idea
of the duties and trials of life to come.

A member of such a school as I have tried to describe
above, is peculiarly subject to temptations of learning
more serious vices than those he may have to encounter in
a public school.

Thrown upon his own responsibility, and daily mingling
with a limited number of associates, he soon learns numer-
ous little things, in which the bad far outnumber the good.

And then, like a capricious coquette, he will have his
likes and dislikes, to whom he usually gives such elegant
designations as "good fellows" and '^ nasty fellows."
Thus, he takes his first lessons in unduly extolling or in

119

hating his fellow-beings. Bnt, as he himself is one of
the " nasty fellows," he will be compelled to drink the first
draught of this world's bitterness.

In this way, definitions of such words as hate, meanness,
jealousy, and false honor, and various others of this class,
are indelibly stamped on his wild and inexperienced ima-
gination. But all this falls into insignificance when we
contemplate the effect on his morals and after-life of those
innumerable little conspiracies which too often constitute
one of his chief amusements.

It may be contended that these are nothing more than
mere practical jokes, and wholly harmless in their conse-
quence. But when such a view is advanced, we must
remember that the disrespect of the child at the fireside has
but a step to go to disobedience of the civil and divine law.

Amid all these faults of private schools, as institutions
of learning, two advantages secured here are at once so
manifestly great as to cause the defects above mentioned
to be usually overlooked by their patrons. First, it is
only in private schools that a variety of study can be pur-
sued ; and, secondly, instruction given is far more thorough
there than that is likely to be in public schools. This cir-
cumstance is easily explained.

A limited number of pupils being always under the eyes
of their teachers, who are generally greater in number in
proportion to their pupils than are afforded in public insti-
tutions, therefore their scholars receive better attention
than in public schools.

Besides this, as the private schools stand only by their
reputation, everything is done to obtain this desired
object.

120 THE JAPAlv^ESE IiS^ AMERICA.

Public schools are designed for the general education of
the people. The system employed differs in everj^ coun-
try, but their fundamental principle is the same, which,
briefly told, is as follows : They are founded and main-
tained at the expense of the people. The necessary amount
of money is raised in the form of taxation, and their ad-
ministrations are in the hands of ofiicers appointed by the
government for that purpose.

Such being the case, every citizen has a right to send
his child to a public school in his district.

I have said that, in a private school, the company is
select ; but here the table is turned. In a public school
every grade of society, intelligence, and refinement, has
its representatives, and usually in such numbers as to over-
crowd recitation rooms.

Such being the state of things, we shall not be surprised
to find that each pupil does not receive as much attention
as might be wished. This, no doubt, is a strong disadvan-
tage of public education, and consequently loudly decried
by the advocates of private schools.

Admitting their accusation to be well founded, there is
another thing in public schools which almost redeems this
defect.

Everything is done so openly and impartially here that
scholars soon feel that in order to obtain the honors of the
school, they must first distinguish themselves in their
studies.

This circumstance fosters laudable ambition among them,
especially that strong incentive to faithful labor, emulation.
Nobody will question that this state of things will have a
most beneficial effect upon their character.

students' essays. 121

Another charge brought against public schools is, that
the course of study is not sufficiently extended for the vari-
ous requirements of its members.

Those who say this, are thinking only of the interest of a
small portion of the community, and not that of the whole,
sovereign community.

The mass of people want a simple course of education,
w^hich is exactly what public schools purpose to give to
their scholars. There is but one road to the field of knowl-
edge, and those who think there are several, will never reach
that glorious goal. In a public school, students must pur-
sue such a course of study as may be prescribed ; in a pri-
vate school, studies are, to some extent, at the option of
its pupils.

The pupil of a public school, when told what he has
to do, in nine cases out of ten concentrates all his ener-
gy on the work before him, and comes out of the severe
ordeal with something substantial, with which he may
begin the arduous duties of life with some hope of suc-
cess.

In a private school, the case is far different. In the first
place, a young gentleman is not sure what studies he will
undertake. When at last the important question is settled,
lie is not pleased with the stern realities of the work. Let us
take a case: A young gentleman, besides the regular studies,
to which he does not do justice, begins the French, for in-
stance, because it is fashionable, or because he remembers,
with chagrin, an occasion when he was laughed at, for
writing in a friend's autograph-book " voire amie,^'' which
eleo-ant phrase was, to his astonishment, translated, Your
female friend. By the time he can say " Comment vous

122 THE JAPANESE li^ AMERICA.

Ijortez vous?^^ without reference, he has had enough of the
French language, and turns his weary eye to the German,
or Latin, in which he will fare no better.

If the critical history of a private school be written, it
will be found that it has sent out by far the greater por-
tion of its students to swell the ranks of that class of per-
sons who know a little of a good many things, but nothing
in particular to any extent. I think, however, that the
chief merit of public schools lies in the fact that the child
is not sent away from home at a tender age, the time when
his character, still all chaos, so to speak, is just forming
itself into some shape, and with whose completion his
destiny is to be fixed. ^

How critical a period this is for him, no sensible man
will question.

It is true, that as he goes to school daily, he sees all sorts
of juvenile vices, but he does not associate with their pos-
sessors to such an extent as to be influenced to a great
extent ; and even if he is afi*ected a little, there is on hand
a good remedy in the love of his parents. The reason why
public schools are not fully aj^preciated, is because there
are so many in the country.

Whatever is abundant is very apt to be slighted. Thus,
a man once observed, after profound consideration, that the
rays of the moon are more precious than those of the sun,
because the former we get in the night, which would other-
wise be dark, while the latter comes to us in the daytime,
when we do not want any light at all. In order to appre-
ciate fully the importance of public schools, imagine them
all destroyed. In the course of time the people would be
utterly degraded, and only a small minority of the people

students' essays. 123

have an opportunity of education, and also that of exercis-
ing a most galling tyranny over the ignorant mass of peo-
ple.

As men in this state are actually dead to the intellectual
world, Ave cannot measure the loss to humanity of those
great minds which, though containing all the power of shin-
in o- as star of the first magnitude, go out of existence as
quietly and as little developed as those of the lower orders
of creation. To illustrate this, let us refer to the life of
the late Professor Mahan of West Point. We need not
here speak of his long, steady, and glorious career. We
need not speak of his melancholy death, but let us ask how
his great mind was developed. His parents were poor, and,
in all probability, could not have given to their son a good
education ; but the brightness of the boy so attracted the
attention of Hon. Willoughby Newton, in whose congres-
sional district he was born, that he became a w^arm patron
of the boy, and sent him to the Military Academy at West
Point, thus snatching as it w.ere from the hands of fate, one
of the greatest scientific soldiers of modern times. The
relation which private schools sustain to public schools is
very similar to that between cavalry and infantry in the
army. Cavalry can be employed only on the plains. In-
fantry can be emj^loyed under every possible circumstance.
It is true, cavalry does great service, but the fact that it
cannot act independently, brings it at once to a secondary
rank. The same may be said of private schools.

That an army may, if necessary, dispense Avith the ser-
vice of cavalry, is evident when we study the campaigns
of Napoleon in Egypt.

The battle of tlie Pyramids, for instance, was gained only

124 THE JAPAN"ESE lis' AMERICA.

by the bayonets of the French soldiers, against the array
which the best cavalry then in the world charged in vain.

In the same manner, public schools can educate the peo-
ple without any help from private schools. From what has
been said, it will be evident that private schools, with all
their excellencies as institutions of learning, are but so many
squadrons of cavalry, in the army of education ; hence we
come to the conclusion that the system of the private
schools is a strong auxiliary force to that of public schools,
but that they ought never to supersede wholly the latter.

CHRISTMAS.
By N. Kanda,

Every nation in the world, where the people receive
Christianity, observes the 25th of December as a holiday,
because it is the birthday of Jesus Christ, the Son of God,
who was born in Bethlehem of Judea, a part of Palestine
in the western part ^f Asia, on the shore of the Mediterra-
nean Sea. The mother of Jesus was Mary, the wife of
Joseph.

Jesus Christ was sent from God. " For God so loved the
world that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever
believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting
life." He was on the earth for thirty-two years, preaching
the Gospel, and doing a great many miracles; and great
multitudes of people believed in him. He had twelve
apostles, who always followed him from place to place, as
he went preaching the Gospel and doing miracles. There
were a great many who did not believe that be was sent
from God, and they tried to find some fault in him, that

students' essays. 125

they migbt put him to death ; but they found none, and at
last, on a Fridaj^, the chief priests, scribes, and elders held
counsel with each other, and bound Jesus, and took him to
Pilate, a Roman Governor, who was then ruling over them.
And Pilate sought to release him many times, saying,
' Why, what evil hath he done ? " because he found no
fault in him; but they cried out, " Crucify him," and so
Pilate, though unwilling to put Christ to death, but willing
to content the people, delivered Jesus Christ to be crucified.
And they dressed him with purple robes, and put a crown
of thorns on his head, and worshipped him, and struck his
head with a staff, and spit on his face. And afterward they
took the robes, and put his own dress on, and led him to
be crucified. About nine o'clock in the morning he was
crucified, and the following superscription was written
over his head, "The King of the Jews.'-' And there were
crucified two thieves with him, one on his right-hand side,
and the other on the left. And that night the Jews who
believed on him came, and asked for his body; and they
gave the body to Joseph of Arimathea, and he wrapped
him in linen, and put him in a sepulchre, and laid a large
stone at the mouth of it.

There was a great earthquake very early on the first day
of the week, and the angel of God descended from heaven,
and rolled back the stone which was at the opening of the
sepulchre. " His countenance was like lightning, and his
raiment white as snow. And for fear of him keepers did
shake, and became as dead men !" And when the women
came they found the stone rolled away, but did not find
Jesus in the tomb, but an angel, dressed in white, sitting at
the entrance. And he spoke to them, '^ Be not affrighted

126 THE JAPANESE IN^ AMERICA.

Jesus, whom they crucified, is risen, and go to Galilee, and
you will see him there." So they and Jesus' apostles went
there and saw him. He was on the earth for forty days
after he had risen from the dead, and he appeared to his
apostles and disciples many times, and on the fortieth day
he ascended to heaven, being carried by a cloud, and all
his apostles and disciples looked up to heaven steadfastly
till he went out of their sight.

Christmas-day, the birthday of Jesus Christ, who came
to this world to save sinners, is celebrated as a holiday. lu
the evening, in some houses is placed an evergreen-tree lit
with a great many candles, and on it are hung many round
glass balls which reflect the light from the candles, and
make the tree look more beautiful. And on it are hung
many presents, which are given to each one in the family.
The room is shut until everything is ready, and they open
the room where the tree is lighted with a great many
candles and balls, and the presents are growing on the tree
like fruit. And some one cuts the fruit off from the tree,
and gives to the person to whom it is addressed.

JAPAK'ESE POETEY.

The collection of oriental books which forms a leading
feature of the Japanese Legation in Washington, has
among its treasures a compilation of ancient Japanese Po-
etry. The work is called 3Ian-yo-Shiu, is in three volumes,
each one about three inches long, and less than half an
inch in thickness, and beautifully printed on gossamer
paper. There is also embodied in these volumes a Poetical
Anthology entitled Shi-ku-Shiu. Some editions of this
work are in large type and copiously illustrated. The
poems, so called, were w^ritten between the years a.d. 905
and 1201, nor are they, by any means, the earliest poems
extant. They are numerous, and while some of the more
ancient specimens fill several pages, w^ith accompanying
notes, the majority do not occupy more than half a page,
and others only a single line of Chinese and Japanese char-
acters combined. They purport to have been written by
emperors and princes, court minstrels or poets-laureate, by
priests and common men ; and they touch upon the vari-
ous themes of love and war, the feelings of joy and sor-
row, upon birds, insects, flowers, trees, and all the won-
ders of nature. Many authors composed all their poetry
in couplets, which were executed with skill, and no subjects
were too formidable for them to grapple. Some of them
are addressed to friends, in the form of letters, and occa-
sionally different parts of a poem are written by different

128 THE JAPAKESE IK AMEKICA.

men. For example, if a fortress is reduced, the emperor
relates the cause of the war, and the successful and
defeated generals give their respective experiences, and
thus complete the story. Owing to the mixed characters
in which the poems are written — a kind of oriental black-
letter — some of them cannot possibly be translated, and
those most easily understood lose their peculiar beauty in
the English tongue. The collection in question has passed
through many editions, and been printed in various styles,
but the miniature copy now before the writer was pub-
lished in Miako, the cradle of Japanese literature, in 1717,
and the binding consists of thin paper covered with blue
silk.

Before submitting to the public a few literal translations
from the little volumes referred to (made chiefly by Mr.
Samro Takaki of the Japanese Legation, and formerly a
student in New Brunswick), it may gratify the reader to
look at a synopsis of the Introduction. These poems, as
the compiler informs us, are founded on the human heart.
The thousands of words which compose them convey a
similar number of thoughts, which are the result of seeing
and hearing. As the birds chirp among the flowers, the
frogs ci?oak in the still waters, and all animated beings
have a voice to be heard, so is it with those who compose
songs. They echo the spirit of the universe, and move to
pity the hearts of the gods and demi-gods, who are not
seen with human eyes, and who have power to prevent
famine among the people, cure diseases, and abate the
most terrible storms. They strengthen the afiections be-
tween men and women, soften the passions of ferocious
warriors, and have existed from the beginning of the world.

JAPAi^ESE POETRY. 129

It hcas come down to the present race in tradi!ion, that the
art of poetry originated in heaven, and is perpetuated upon
earth by the wise. By direction of one of the early em-
perors, the poems to be thereafter written were limited to
thirty-one syllables, whereas before that time the number
was unlimited. But few of those more ancient poems,
however, are now in existence. As the art of poetry pro-
gressed, it increased the expression of human feelings for
nature, until there was found a deep meaning, even in dew-
drops, and birds, and flowers. Among all the poems writ-
ten in the olden times, and in as many as six different
styles, there w^ere two which were greater than all the
rest, and equal in ability, and these should always be
learned by beginners. Some of the ancient emperors, in
the " beautiful mornings of flowery Spring, and the moon-
light nights of Autumn," were wont to call the members
of their courts together, to compose poems on the works
of nature, and in that manner they became acquainted with
what was in the hearts of their people. And it was in this
manner also that many celebrated poems came into exist-
ence, which are still cherished and repeated in the domestic
circles of Japan.

Accompanying many of the verses under consideration
are elaborate notes, connecting them with important histori-
cal events and personages. It is related of one of the em-
perors, for example, that he always composed his poetry by
the side of a favorite waterfaU ; and of a certain prince,
that he had been sheltered in a monastery on a stormy
night, and having written a poem on the subject, presented
it to the institution, whereby it obtained a fortune. Among
the most ancient and distinguished women who wrote poetry

130 THE JAPANESE IX AMERICA.

was one of the Empresses of Japan, named Soo-tood-hime,
but much of it is said to be " like the complainings of a
beautiful girl in her sickness." Among the poetesses who
is thought never to have been excelled, was Onono-Komatch,
and she is remembered to this day with religious venera-
tion. She was originally attached to one of the Imperial
Courts of Japan, and her style or power of playing with
words, which cannot be illustrated in English, was consid-
ered the perfection of art. But on account of the coldness
and indifference with which she received the homage of her
many admirers, she became reduced to beggary, and as a
lonely and friendless minstrel she spent the greater part of
her life. For many years she wandered, barefooted, from
village to village, selling her treasures of thought and sen-
timent to any who would purchase them, and teaching the
little children who gathered around her, how to recite her
poetry on the beauties and sublimities of creation. Very
nrany of the poems in the collection before us have become
popular as songs, and as these are more easily translated
than the longer poems, the subjoined specimens are exclu-
sively of that character.

These productions are undoubtedly more nearly aUied
to the lyric than to any other form of composition, although
many of them are merely poetic aphorisms ; and yet, so far
as they are pervaded by one leading idea, they might, bar-
ring their length, resemble the sonnet more closely. To the
casual reader they may occasionally appear somewhat triv-
ial, but they certainly give us many glimpses into the Japan-
ese mind ; — but when we consider their origin and great an-
tiquity, they cannot but be read with interest and pleasure.

Some of the longer poems in the collection are founded

JAPANESE POETRY. 131

upon the customs, as well as the traditions, of the Empire,
and we submit a single specimen, in which the beautiful
and the sorrowful are happily combined. Among the nu-
merous holidays which the Japanese formerly celebrated
with great care, there were three of them which they devot-
ed to the Festival of Departed Spirits. It occurred in July,
between the 13th and 16th of the month. On the first day
a fire was built in front of every house in the Empire,
which was a signal or invitation for all the departed mem-
bers of the house to revisit their old homes. A suitable
place in each house was arranged, where food of various
kinds was kept constantly in view, for the use of the spirits.
On the third day another fire was made, and the spirits
were supposed to take their departure with the setting of
the sun. On that night, as was believed, the fires of hell
w^ere opened, and kept open until the dawn ; and during
the nocturnal period, ceremonies were performed, and effi-
gies exhibited in honor of Satan. With these preliminary
remarks, and avoiding everything like a display of learning
in regard to Japanese authors and their productions, we
submit the following translations.

Nature.
Among the things in nature which will never tarry for the pleasure of
man, are running rivers, fading flowers, and passing tinae.

The Cherry -Trees.
We feel not the cold under the cherry-trees, when the blossoms are fall-
ing, and there are snow-showers which do not come from the skies.

The Moon.
There are many ways of climbing a mountain, but all who reach the
summit are sure to look upon the same moon.

Love.
My love is like a rock in the depths of the ocean, which never gets dry
and the secret which I cherish is unknown to all the world.

132 THE JAPAI^ESE IN" AMEEICA.

Illusions of the Snow.
When the snow lies so deep upon the mountains that we cannot see the
winding roads, then it is that the viUages are brought nearer to their sum-
mits, for the valleys are all filled up, and the pathway, as we look upon it,

is distinct and clear.

Parting from Friends.

When compelled to say farewell to a friend, the parting is like a rock

which divides a mountain-stream, the waters of which are sure to meet

again.

The Plum-Tree.

Send me your fragrance upon the eastern winds, 0 flowers of the plum-
tree, and do not forget the Spring, because of the absence of the sun ! But
the sweetness I enjoy only makes me anxious for more, and so I am
tempted to go forth and break down your branches, that I may press you

in my hands.

The New Year.

The year is new, and the singing- voice of the night-bird is unchanged,

but the plum-tree may blossom in the snow before the coming of Spring.

Story of the Smoke.
I climbed the mountain (said an emperor, when his countrymen were
suffering from poverty), and, looking down, I saw the smoke rising from
unnumbered dwellings, and so I was glad to believe that my people were in
comfort, for I love them as a mother does her children.
The Detvdrop.
Having the pure heart of the lotus, why does the dewdrop, reposing on
the leaves, attempt to deceive us by pretending to be a gem 1

The Fat Widow.

I am so large, that you could not encircle me in your arms, yet you

must remember that a willow-tree is never anything but a willow-tree ;

and, whether sitting or lying down, I find that my musquito-netting is

larger than I need.

The Rejected Lover.

I wish to tell you (says the lover), that even the smoke on the sea-coast

where the salt-makers are at work, is carried off against its will, and thus

may it be with you; and (replies the maiden), I might have obeyed your

will, but it would have been at the hazard of my good name.

JAPANESE POETRY. 133

The Duties of Life.
As I hope, in the future, to be pei-mittecl to study and wander among
the stars, I must not forget, during my present life, to respect the god.i
treat my fellow-men with justice, and keep my heart pure.
The Detr.
As I walked (said an emperor) in a pensive mood, along the woodland-
paths, I heard a doe moaning for her lost mate, which had been killed by
a hunter, and so I resolved to issue a decree that nevermore should the
deer be used by my people as an article of food.

The Faithful Lover.
If my beloved doubt me, and would know the extent of my affection,
she must go and count the waves along the rocky coast of Tago-no-woora.

Future Life.
As the fisherman, with rudder lost, floats helpless on the waves of Yura,
so uncertain will be my future life.

The Neglected Wife.

You chide me because I went to sleep, but I waited, wakeful and deso

late, for your return; until the morning light came up above the eastern

sea.

TJie Thinking Lover.

To think, when we are entirely alone, is sometimes painful ; yet, with-
out doing this, how can the mind of my beloved be brought to enjoy my
thoughts of happiness ?

Treacherous Waves.

When the moon is shining, the receding waves of ocean collect its light,
and picture it in its fullness upon their bosoms, but soon they dash it upon
the rocky shore, shattering it into unnumbered fragments.

Love for the Unknown.
I do not know when my heart first began to love, but I do know that it
is now yearning towards one, of whom I have heard, but have never seen.

Autumnal Winds.
Mournful, to my heart, are the sounds of Autumn, as I hear them at the
twilight hour, passing over the thatched roof of my house, and the rice*
fields growing near

134 THE JAPAJ^ESE I:N' AMERICA.

Wai/icard Lovers.
I am now in the autumn of life, which I had no desire soon to see, and
the hearts of the men who once talked jjleasantly to me, have wandered
after many things besides love.

Clean Houses
"When the houses of a people are kept clean, you may always be certain
that their government is respected and will endure.
Unlimited Love.
Although I have not told it, my unlimited love is well-known to one who
is above the skies.

The Water on the Grave.
I pray, 0 water, that I have placed upon the grave of my aged mother,
you may never freeze under the influence of the winter's cold !

The Doubting Wife.
I will not blame you, should your absence be long-continued, but you
must not gather the unknown flowers that you may see upon the winding
roads.

The Returned Letter.

By sending back my letter you have filled my eyes with tears, and I
now see that your love is like a broken foot-bridge across a mountain-
stream.

A Question.

Why? 0 why ? is not the one I love as faithful in keeping her promise
as is the beautiful moon in passing across the heavens ?

Perseverance.
Although the walk of a cow is slow, she can, by perseverance, reach
the distance of a thousand miles.

Sadness.
When I am sad my feelings are like the closing year, and looking at
the autumnal moon only increases my sorrow.

Home.
I call that place my home where I happen to be in all the world.

The Lover's Unkind Message.
I know that you did not send me that branch of the maple- tree as a

JAPAK-ESE POETRY. 135

token of remembrance, but to show that, like its leaves at the close of
autumn, you arc tired of the life of love.

The Returned Wanderer.
Long a wanderer from my early home, I returned only to find that ray
old friends did not remember me ; but I remembered, with rare pleasure,
the fragrance of the Spring-flowers.

Unfading Love.
I promised that my love would not fail until the waves of the sea had
swallowed up the mountain of Suye, and is it not true that the clouds are
still playing around its lofty summit 1

A Robber going intoJBanislunent.
I ask you, 0 fishermen, who toil upon the sea, to tell the people of my
native village that you have seen me in a frail vessel sailing in banish
ment to the island of Yassoshima !

The Dancing-Girl.
As I look upon the dancing-girl, I am reminded of the goddess Otone,
as she appears in the sky when the clouds are fleeing before the stormy
wind.

The Snow-Shower.
To please the one I love, 1 went into the mountains to gather the
wakana plant for her enjoyment, and I was caught in a shower of Spring
snow.

A Sleepless Night.
During the long night have I heard the chirping of the grasshoppei,,
and while the hoar-frost was covering all the ground I have in vain tried
to obtain repose.

Running from Troubles.
I did not wish to hear about the troubles of life, and so I fled far away
to the distant hills, but even there I heard the painful cry of the wounded

deer.

The Cuckoo.

I heard at night the cry of the cuckoo-bird, and when I went forth to
see it, I only saw the morning-moon.

The foregoing poems, with few exceptions, are taken

136 THE JAPAis'ESE IK AMERICA

from the collection to which we have alluded. By way ot
showing to what extent the art of j^oetry has been patron-
ized in Japan, we submit the following list of the principal
books which have been published in the native lancruao-e.
viz. :

ChoJc-sen-shiu, a Collection of Selections made at the command of the
Emperor.

Go-senshiu, Collection of after Selections.

Jiu-i-slnu, Collection of Additional Poems.

Kin-yo-sUu, a Collection of Golden Leaves.

Ko-kin-sliiu, Collection of Ancient and Modem Poems, and

Shi-Tca-sMu, a poetical Anthology.

^UGOI /^RINORI JVIORI.

PART III

LIFE

AND

RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

PRELIMIISrAKY NOTE.

The knowledge furnished by all the better qualified
minds of the world is a powerful element, rendering
great service in the cause of humanity. It is often the
case that enmity and bloodshed are the consequence of
storing up prejudices, resulting from the want of mutual
knowledge of the parties engaged. The object of this
publication is not only to aid in removing those preju-
dices, but also to invite all the lovers of their race, in
Japan, to join in the noble march of progress and human
happiness.

In view of the fact that many dates are mentioned in
this volume, it has been found necessary, for the sake of
convenience, to adopt the western calendar altogether, and
it is hoped that this course will not lead to any embarrass-
ment in the mind of the reader.

Aeinoei AIoki.

"Washington City, U. S., September, 1871.

Or, according to the Japanese Calendar, the

Seventh month of the Fourth year of Meidi.

IN"TEODUCTIOE".

By the term America, whieh appears on the title-page
of this book, we mean the United States of America. As
we are writing for the information of a class of readers who
have never visited this country, we propose to speak in as
simple and concise a manner as possible. Whatever state-
ments of fact we may make, shall be founded upon the
public and other authentic records ; and in submitting any
general observations, we shall endeavor to steer a middle
course, and give only such opinions as are held in common
by the people of the country. Before proceeding to the
main object of this volume, however, we think it necessary
to take a brief survey of the area and population of the
United States, as follows : The total area of the Republic,
which extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific
Ocean, and, excepting Alaska, lies wholly in the temperate
zone, is about 3,830,000 square miles — an extent of surface
larger than the whole of Europe ; it has a coast-line, in-
cluding shores of bays, sounds, and lakes, of 30,000 miles,
of which 2,800 are on the Atlantic, 1,800 on the Pacific,
and 2,000 on the Gulf of Mexico ; it is traversed from
north to south by two great ranges of mountains, called
the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains; its rivers are numer-
ous, and among the largest in the world ; its lakes contain
more than one-half of the fresh water on the globe ; and its

140 LIFE A2n"D KESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

population, according to the census of 1870, is not far from
39,000,000, which is a considerable advance upon the
population hitherto claimed for the Empire of Japan. In
the last TO years, the increase has been about 33,000,000.
Of these inhabitants, it has been estimated that more than
two-fifths of them are immigrants, or the descendants of
immigrants, from foreign countries. Great Britain and Ire-
land have contributed most largely to this immigration,
and the other countries which have helped to swell the
population are as follows, and we mention them in the
order of their contribution, viz.: Germany, France, Prussia,
China, West Indies, Switzerland, Xorway and Sweden, Hol-
land, Mexico, Spain, Italy, Belgium, South America, Den-
mark, Azores, Portugal, Sardinia, Poland, and Russia, whose
contribution was less than 2,000, Of this great mass of
immigrants, it has been ascertained that a very large
proportion have changed their circumstances for the bet-
ter. With regard to the black race, who prior to the
year 1860 were in a state of bondage, but are now free,
they number nearly 4,900,000; the half-civilized Indian
tribes, about 26,000, and the wild Indians have been
estimated at 300,000. In 1870 there were of Chinese
63,254, with whom were included 53 Jaj^anese, but since
then the latter have reached about 250 in number.* The
public lands of the United States are so abundant, that
every man who settles in the country can afford, with
careful management, to have a small farm for his exclusive
benefit, as the price of land is generally so reasonable that

*It must not be understood that all these foreigners have been
naturalized.

IKTRODUCTIOX. 141

it scarcely exceeds, and seldom equals, the rent payable in
England. There is no description of produce, European
or tropical, which may not be raised in the United States ;
and aside from its many other advantages, there is no
other country which offers so many inducements to people
in search of permanent and comfortable homes ; and it is
the present condition of the people who enjoy this inherit-
ance, with their manners and customs, that we propose to
describe in the following pages of this volume.

But, before concluding this introduction, it is important
that two subjects should be mentioned for the special con-
sideration of the Japanese people. While we entertain an
exalted opinion of what is called a Republican form of
government, we confess that it is not without its disadvan-
tages and dangers. For any foreign nation fully to under-
stand them, must require time and much careful study.
The Japanese people have been somewhat fascinated by
what they have seen of the American government and
institutions, and it is of the utmost importance that they
should well consider the subject in all its bearings, before
adopting any of its features into their own form of gov-
ernment. The evils resulting from the misuse of freedom
in America, are among the most difficult to correct or re-
form, and ought to be carefully avoided. Another fact
that should not be forgotten has reference to the educa-
tional qualifications necessary to secure success in a Repub-
lican form of government. It is undoubtedly true that
the best thinkers in America deplore the fact that the
machinations of the politicians have resulted in placing
the United States in an unfortunate condition in this re-
spect. It has been so profitable with designing and selfish

142 LIFE A]S"D KESOUKCES IK AMERICA.

men to increase the number of voters, that they have se-
cured the passage of laws which allow all men to vote,
in view of the single idea of personal freedom. This is
undoubtedly all wrong, and the evil effects of this state of
things are being manifested every day. A prosperous,
happy, and permanent Republican government can only be
secured, when the people who live under it are virtuous
and well educated.

OFFICIAL AJ^D POLITICAL LIFE.

As preliminary to this chapter, it would seem to be
necessary that we should give an outline of the machinery
of the American Government. It is twofold in its charac-
ter : first, Federal^ because it is made up of States, and
second, National, because it acts directly from the people.
According to the Constitution, it is divided into three
branches, viz., Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The
head of the Executive branch, or governor of the nation,
is called the President, who is elected by the votes of the
people for the term of four years, and is sometimes re-
elected for an additional term of four years. He is also
the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Navy and
Army. The average cost of each election, in money, has
been estimated at two millions of dollars, and these expen-
ses are incurred in part by the Government and people.
His office is styled the Executive Mansion, and is identical
with his official residence, the White House. He is obliged to
be a native and citizen of the country, and thirty-five years
of age ; and his annual compensation is twenty-five thou-
sand dollars. The second officer of the Government is
called the Vice-President, whose business is to preside over
the Senate. He is elected in the same manner as the
President, and his salary is eight thousand dollars per
annum. The Executive departments of the Government

144 LIFE AND RESOURCES 11^" AMERICA.

are seven in number, viz., the departments of State or
Foreign Affairs, Treasury, Interior, Post-Office, War, Navy,
and of Justice. The heads of these are called Secretaries,
and they form the Cabinet of the President. They each
receive a salary of eight thousand dollars, and their juris-
diction, under the President, extends to all the subordi-
nate officers of the Government, whether located in Wash-
ington or in the several States of the Union. The Judi-
ciary of the country is vested in a Supreme Court, District
Courts, and the Court of Claims ; the salaries of the Judges
ranging from sixty-five hundred down to thirty-five hun-
dred dollars per annum. The Legislative branch of the
Government consists of a Senate and House of Representa-
tives,— the Senators, numbering seventy-four, elected for
six years, and the Representatives, two hundred and for-
ty-three, elected for two years, — and their compensation is
five thousand dollars per annum. The number of States
which form the Union is thirty-seven, with ten Territories
or incipient States, and their form of government is pre-
cisely similar to that of the nation at large ; the leading
officers of each State or Territory bearing the titles of
Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. To the above may
be added the municipal form of government for cities and
towns, where the local authority is allied to that generally
recognized in Europe, where the chief officers consist of
Mayors and Aldermen and their subordinates, although
bearing different names in different countries. With these
particulars before him, the reader will be able t;o compre-
hend the following observations. Although the real and
official residence of the President is in Washington, the
fashionable season, so called, begins and ends with the sit-

OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 145

tings of Congress, beginning in December and lasting from
three to six months. The position occupied by officials,
under the Constitution, gives them necessarily a certain
rank, according to the importance and nature of the office,
the length of time, and the age, required by law, of the
incumbent. The house in which the President resides is
the property of the Government ; and, to a great extent,
his household expenses are paid by public appropriations.
The title by which he is addressed in conversation is that
of 3Ir. President, and every citizen of the Republic, no
matter how humble his position, has a right to visit the
Executive in person. During the winter he holds public
receptions as often as once a week, and on the Fourth of
July, v/hich is a National Holiday, and the First of Jan-
uary, he receives, as a special mark of respect, the Diplo-
matic Corps and the officers of the Army and the Navy in
full uniform, himself always appearing without any uniform.
He accepts no invitations to dinners, and makes no calls or
visits of ceremony ; but is at liberty to visit without cere-
mony at his pleasure. State-dinners are given by him
quite frequently, and persons invited commit a breach of
etiquette when they decline invitations. The rules of
social intercourse which govern the Cabinet Ministers are
similar to those recognized by the President. As their
tenure of office is limited, they have, in spite of themselves,
a very busy time during their whole term of service:
spending their days in dealing out patronage, and their
nights in giving or attending parties. Their families take
the lead in fashion, and all American citizens have an un-
disputed right to attend their receptions, and, after that
public manner, to be fashionable ; and as exclusiveness in

146 LIFE AiTD EESOUKCES IK AMERICA.

the President or his Ministers would be considered undem-
ocratic, and therefore would not be tolerated, there is no
end to the so-called enjoyments of life. If a Minister is
rich and liberal, he becomes, for the time being, the big-
gest man of the hour, in sjDite of his politics ; if poor, and
dependent only upon his salary, the fact of his having to
occupy a large house, and to entertain the people, invaria-
bly sends him into retirement a poorer man than he was
before. With the Judges of the Supreme Court these
matters are somewhat diiferent. They are the only digni-
taries who hold office for life, and they can afford to do as
they please, and generally please to lead the quiet lives of
cultivated gentlemen. They go into society when the
spirit moves them, are not disinclined to partake of good
dinners with their friends, a Foreign Envoy, or a Cabinet
Minister : and perhaps the greatest of their blessings is, that
they are not compelled to curry favor with the multitude.

The next layer of Washington society to which w^e would
allude, is made up of the Heads of Bureaus and the Officers
of the Army and Navy, their pay ranging from ten to two
thousand dollars per annum. They are the men who nK)re
immediately manage the machinery of the Government,
and upon whom, to a great extent, depends the success of
all the public measures enacted by Congress. Though
generally well paid, many of them cannot afford to display
much style, although they live comfortably, and generally
in their own houses, although many officials reside in board-
ing-houses or hotels. The civil officers are but seldom
appointed on their merits, but usually through political
influence ; and the party which happens to be in power
commonly claims all the patronage, and the most worthy

OFFICIAL AKD POLITICAL LIFE. 147

and competent men are often dismissed from office without
a moment's warning. With the Military and Naval officers
the case is somewhat different, for though they may get
into office through political influence, they are usually ap-
pointed for life, and are not removed without cause. After
the above come the Clerks or employes of the Govern-
ment, which number several thousand in Washington
alone. They are, in reality, the hardest working popula-
tion of the Metropolis. Among them may be found men
from every State in the Union, and from many foreign
countries ; men of no particular mark, Avho have lost for-
tunes; ripe scholars, who have been rudely buffeted by
the world ; men of capacity, who can teach their superiors
in office ; rare penmen and common-place accountants ;
and a sisterhood, composed chiefly of respectable widows
and orphans who have fled to the Government for support.
The custom of employing women as clerks originated out
of the disasters which followed the late war, and the
number n#w employed by the Government has already
reached several thousand, and they have been found
to be quite as useful as men-clerks. Their compensa-
tion ranges from nine hundred to twenty-five hundred dol-
lars per annum, and while it is true that many receive more
than they earn, because of their idle or inattentive habits,
others find it difficult to secure a comfortable support.
Occasionally a man may be found who has grown gray in
the public service, and is an oracle; but the great majority
are, in reality, a floating population. The comparative
ease with which these clerks earn their money tends to
make them improvident; many instances might be men-
tioned, however, where clerks have left the government

148 LIFE AXD RESOURCES IX AMERICA.

service, and become as distinguished as merchants, or in
some of the professions. For a totally different phase of
Washington life, and the most influential for evil or for
good, we must turn to the brotherhood of Congressmen.
Coming as the}' do from all parts of the country, and rep-
resenting every variety of population, it is quite as impos-
sible to speak of them collectively as of their individual
characteristics. Among them are to be found honest and
able statesmen, but that a large proportion of them are mere
time-serving politicians is a fact that cannot be questioned.
It is frequently the case that after a Congressman has
ended his career as a legislator, he turns oflice-seeker, and
many of them, without a knowledge of any language but
their own, are sent abroad as diplomatic Ministers. Of
these Congressmen, there have been not less than five
thousand of them elected since the foundation of the Gov-
ernment; and the several political parties to which they
have belonged may be summed up as Federalists, Demo-
crats, AVhigs, Locofocos, Freesoilers, Abolitionists, Fire-
eaters, Republicans, Copperheads, Native Americans, Seces-
sionists, and Radicals, formino^ in the aoco-rearate a con-
glomeration of political ideas quite in keeping with the
energetic and free spirit of the American people. Prior to
the late civil war, colored men were not admitted to seats
in Congress, but at the present time a few of them hold
positions in both Houses of Congress, — there being now no
distinction recognized on account of color, so far as political
rights are concerned. With regard to the permanent pop-
ulation of Washington, little can be said of special interest.
Occupying, as this city does, a position on the River Poto-
mac, at the head of navigation, about midway between

OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 149

the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Mountains, it was
calculated to become a place of commercial importance-
But this idea was not realized, and it became a metropoli-
tan city, chiefly dependent for its support upon the General
Government. The local trade is measured by the wants
of the population, and there is nothing exported excepting
a limited amount of flour, and a considerable quantity of
bituminous coal. The only particular, perhaps, in which
the inhabitants difl"er from those of other American cities,
is in their free and easy manners, growing out of their
intercourse and familiarity with people from all quarters
of the globe, drawn hither by business or pleasure. With
them, the dignitaries of the land, as well as ambassadors
from abroad, are appreciated at their real value ; and a
man who towers as a giant in the rural districts, is very
sure to be measured accurately in the metropolis. But the
most peculiar feature of Washington society at the pres-
ent time (18 VI), is the position to which the colored or
negro population has attained. Before the late civil war,
these unhappy people were in a state of bondage, and only
enough of them were congregated in the metropolis to
supply the demand for household servants. While the war
was progressing, wdiich resulted in their emancipation, large
numbers fled to this city, as to a place of refuge, and here a
large proportion of them have continued to remain to the
present time. They have been admitted to all the rights and
privileges of citizenship ; but, while the more intelligent have
profited by their advantages, large numbers of them are con-
tent to idle away their time, or depend upon the authorities
for support, and they constitute about one-third of the
present population. They have not as yet been sufficiently

150 LIFE A^B RESOURCES IX AMERICA.

educated to be received in society on the same footing with
the white race, and the repugnance to receiving them at the
same table, or to intermarrying with them, is as strong as in
other times, quite universal, and will probably so continue.
In the further prosecution of our plan, we must direct
attention to that lai-ge mass of the community engaged in
carrying on the business of the nation in the diverse regions
of the United States. We begin with the Postmasters, one
of whom is located in every city, town, and village through-
out the land, and the aggregate number of whom is about
twenty-six thousand, exclusive of their numerous assistants.
Their duties are, to receive and deliver all letters sent to
their several offices, and to look after the prompt dispatch
of the mails, by ships and railroads, by coaches and wag-
ons, and on horseback, and their compensation ranges from
six thousand dollars to a few dollars per annum. They are
all appointed indirectly by the President, and hold office
during his pleasure. ISText to these come the custom-house
officers, who, including a'll grades, number not less than five
thousand employes ; after these comes another large body,
whose business is to collect the Internal Revenue of the
country ; and also a very extensive force engaged in carry-
ing on the interests connected with the Public Lands, the
Indian Tribes, and the Judicial business in the various
States and Territories, as well as those interests prosecuted
under the authority of the Patent Office, the Pension Office,
and the Agricultural Department. Now, as the people
here mentioned, numbering in the gross not far from sixty
thousand persons, obtain their positions through political
influence, it is natural that they should take a special inter-
est in politics, and do their utmost for the success of the

OFFICIAL AI^D POLITICAL LIFE. 151

particular party to which they belong. Hence the great
excitement which invariably prevails at all the elections.
As before intimated, the President and Vice-President are
voted for once in every four years ; and the Representatives
in Congress once in two years ; — the Senators being chosen
by the State Legislatures. It would appear, therefore, that
as the people are intelligent and honest, so must be the
office-holders; but this is not always the case, because of
the existence of w4iat are called mere politicians or dema-
gogues. This class of citizens has greatly multiplied of
late years, and it is safe to say that nearly all the troubles
which befall the country are the result of tlieir petty
schemes and selfish intrigues. There is not a village in the
land w^here they do not congregate, or pursue in secret their
unpatriotic designs. Of course there are many exceptions
to this state of things, but the rule is as we have stated it ;
and the evils resulting from the power thus obtained and
prostituted, have come to be universally recognized and de-
plored by the honest people of the land. The loss of dig-
nity, and the decline in public morals on account of poli-
tics is, to-day, a source of mortification and alarm among
the virtuous and patriotic citizens of the country. The
philosophy of government is a subject to which the people
of America have devoted but little attention, and very few
books have been published on the subject, and yet it is
claimed that they are in advance of all other nations, in the
practice of self-government. To what extent this is true,
the present writer is not called upon to decide. It is too
true, however, that the opinion is frequently expressed by
foreigners that the unbridled system of a Republican gov-
ernment leads to many political troubles. The two or

152 LIFE AXD EESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

three crowning features of the American Government would
seem to be as follows : That the nation is a peculiar organ-
ism, having a life and destiny of its own, founded on the
idea of humanity, and like the individual person, but in a
more continuous degree ; that its authority to govern the
people is derived from their actual or implied assent ; and
that, in asserting its prerogatives, it looks to the least pos-
sible interference with the free action of the individuals
composing the community. This form of government in-
volves the idea of contract, tacit or expressed, and no mat-
ter how it may be carried out, must rest upon the under-
standing of the people, not only as to the end to be pur-
sued, but also as to the methods. As one circle within
another, so does the government of each State and Terri-
tory revolve within the circle of the Union, and the State,
county, and town elections, for offices which are subject to
State patronage, are precisely similar in character and re-
sults to the National elections. While deprecating the
abuses to which the American people are subject, on ac-
count of what is called universal suffii-age, there are many
social features which are to be highly commended, and are
peculiar to the country ; among these is the absence of pau-
perism, and the universal respectability in personal appear-
ance among all classes. IMiis fact is apparent to all observ-
ers, and has been fully conceded by the best English writers
on this country. There is no beggary here except such as
arises from profligacy or causes beyond the control of
human nature. Another peculiar feature of American life
is, the equal distribution of wealth, acknowledged as re-
markably characteristic of the nation. In all the large
cities and occasionally in the country, may be foimd a man

OFFICIAL AXD POLITICAL LIFE. 153

possessing enormous wealth, but among the millions of our
population wealth is difFusecl, and there is a vronderful
equality in the material condition of the population. An-
other phase of American life, to which we have already allu-
ded, and which has astonished the governments of the
Old World, is, the doctrine of universal suffrage. It is
this which lies at the basis of all her institutions, arjd it is
this, more than anything else, taken in connection with the
superabundant resources of the country, that tends to
an equal distribution of wealth. It is not, as a noted
English statesman has said, so much a man's wealth,
which the American people recognize, and to which they
pay homage, as the energy and ability which may turn
w^ealth to account. In theory, as well as in reality, they
regard equality and brotherhood as of the essence of the
Constitution under which they live, and of their social well-
being and existence. As the official and political classes
heretofore touched upon, are either the law-makers of the
land, or engaged in carrying out the laws, it may be well
enough to notice their rights and privileges under those
laws. While it is true that members of Congress, and some
few dignitaries besides, are exempt from arrest for civil
misdemeanors, when engaged in their public duties, all
persons of every position are amenable to the criminal laws.
A leading dignitary, when he violates the law, is as
promptly brought to trial as the humblest man in the com-
munity; but the misfortune is, that the influence possessed
by the former is too apt to keep him from deserved pun-
ishment, while the latter is compelled to meet a less happy
fate. The titles which accompany the possession of office
are of no special value, and, except in the Army and Navy,

154 LIFE AN-D RESOURCES I:N" AMERICA.

terminate with the office. At the same time it must not
be supposed that the Americans are without the sentiments
which grow out of association with old and honored fami-
lies. In some parts of the country there is a very decided
feeling of aristocracy, but it is peculiar to the regions which
have been the longest settled. The privilege of receiving
and sending letters free of postage, and without limit, is
enjoyed only by the President, his Cabinet, the heads of
Bureas, and Congressmen ; under certain official restrictions,
the postmasters may frank their letters, but, beyond that,
all men in office have to pay postage like ordinary people.
"When a young man has determined to lead a political life,
his first desire is to be elected to the State Legislature,
then to become Governor of the State, and from that posi-
tion he thinks himself entitled to go into the United States
Senate ; but there is no uniformity in these promotions.
Generally speaking, the career of public men in this coun-
try is measured more by their cunning or success in man-
aging the people w^ho have votes, rather than by their
abilities. ISTor does their political success depend upon
their antecedents — upon wealth or family position. Ten
years before he became President, Ulysses S. Grant was a
leather-merchant ; it was the boast of Andrew Johnson, the
late president, that he had been bred a tailor; and of
Abraham Lincoln, that he had earned his living in early
life as a common chopper of wood, or rail-splitter. The
present Minister to England was once a tutor in an acad-
emy; and the Ministers to France and Spain were both
printers ; but at the same time it does occasionally happen
in these latter days, as it frequently did in former times,
that the diplomatic representatives abroad have attained

OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 155

high positions, notwithstanding the fact that they have
been men of cultnre and qniet scholarship, as in the case
of Motley and Bancroft, the historians, and Marsh, the
distinguished scholar and author. The present Secretary
of the Treasury was, for many years, a merchant's clerk;
and among the Senators and Representatives are men who
once sold drygoods for a living, or were engaged in various
mechanical employments, but who are not on those ac-
counts less esteemed than they would otherwise have
been. But w^hen a notorious gambler or profligate is elected
to Congress, as has sometimes been the case, it must not
be supposed that the American people are indifferent to his
antecedents. The most striking fact, perhaps, which can
be mentioned, by way of illustrating the wonderful elasticity
of the American Government, is this, that among the Rep-
resentatives now sitting in Congress and engaged in mould-
ino- the laws, are several persons, members of the negro-
race, who W'Cre once slaves, employed upon plantations,
both of which could alike, at one time, have been sold for
a specific sum of money. Although there are many in-
stances among the State governors, where men have risen
to eminence from obscurity, the people have generally been
more careful in selecting their State executives than in
selectino- their Congressmen ; and what we have said in
regard to the changes effected by politics in the case of
prominent ofiicials, is equally true, in a less degree, of all
the subordinate office-holders. And now the question
arises, how about the servants of the public after they have
been superseded in their official position? It cannot be
said that any of the Presidents have ever gone into any
unbecoming employment after leaving the Executive

156 LIFE AI^D RESOURCES IK AMERICA.

chair; but it is not uncommon for Ex-Congressmen and
other ex-officials of the so-called higher grades, to go into
all sorts of inappropriate employments, from a govern-
ment clerkship to a claim agency. The only one of the
presidents who consented to enter Congress after leaving
the Executive Chair was John Quhicy Adams ; but his
character stood so high as a man and a statesman, he could
afford to do as he pleased ; and to die, as he did, in the
harness of public life. As before stated, the total number
of men who have served the country as law-makers, is
about five thousand ; of these, the legal profession has
sent the largest jDroportion : the men of letters have num-
bered only one in every fifty : the eloquent speakers, or
orators of special note, have not been more than two hun-
dred ; less than one-half graduated at learned institutions ;
while the balance have been farmers and planters, mer-
chants, and members of various professions. The total
number of men who have held Cabinet appointments is one
hundred and eighty-two, of whom one hundred and thirty-
three have been Congressmen : of the forty-four Supreme
Court Judges, one-half of them served in the Senate or
House of Representatives: out of five hundred and twen-
ty-seven Foreign Ministers, one hundred and seventy
were members of Congress ; and of the seven hundred and
sixty-eight State and Territorial Governors, three hundred
and forty-nine were Congressmen. The treaty which has
recently been made between the American and English Gov-
ernments, consummates a long-wished-for condition of affairs,
viz. : a cordial good-will with all the great Powers of Europe
— Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Spain.
It is claimed, indeed, by the best thinkers, that the American

OFFICIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE. 157

Government was never more powerful and influential for
good than it is at the present time. Intercourse and trade
between the two continents, over the Pacific Ocean, are
growing rapidly. The friendship of Japan for the United
States, and its thorough reciprocation on their part, are
universally acknowledged. The latter seem to watch atten-
tively the movements of England and other European Powers,
in the far East. And while the British Government may
deem it wise to use force in its dealings with the eastern
nations, the American policy appears to adhere resolutely to
the principles of peace, justice, and equal rights to all, not-
withstanding the late unwarrantable operations of the Ameri-
can Navy on the coast of Corea. The changes for good
that have taken place in Japan during the last few years,
are a matter of wonder and satisfaction to the whole civil-
ized world. The American people have been, since the
memorable visit of Commodore Perry, taking great and
special interest in the affairs of Japan. The President of
the United States has justly echoed the prevailing sentiment
among the Americans, when he said to the Prince Fushimi,
member of one of the Imperial families of the Mikado, that
he had seen with pride the young men of Japan coming
over to receive their education, and that he would take the
greatest pleasure in contriving to make their residence in
this country both agreeable and useful to them. There
rests upon Japan a great hope, as well as high responsibility,
for the success of bringing about a healthy and exemplary
civilization, which must take the lead among all the Asiatic
nations.

P. S. In view of the changes which are constantly taking

158 LIFE A]S^D KESOURCES I:N" AMERICA.

place among the officials of the American Government, to
which allusion has been made in the foregoing pages, the
writer must express an opinion. They are, beyond all ques-
tion, a great disadvantage to the Republic. They naturally
interfere with the proper and legular working of the machin-
er}'- of the Government, and are the primary cause of the
bitter political dissensions which have long prevailed, and
continue to prevail, among the American jDCople. And what
is more, they lead to all kinds of corruption ; and at the
very time of our writing these lines, the people of New
York are greatly convulsed over the discovery that the
Treasury of the City and State has been robbed to the extent
of many millions of dollars, growing directly out of the evils
of office-seeking, and rotation in office, from party considera-
tions. On the other hand, it must be confessed that where
the people have it in their power, as in America, to regulate
the conduct of the men they elect to office, so long as they
are truly honest, they can always prevent a long continu-
ance of the evils brought upon them by unscrupulous dema-
gogues. Hence the great importance of their being both
virtuous and truly patriotic.

LIFE AMOISTG THE FARMEES AWD
PLAI^TEES.

In the present paper we propose to give a comprehensive
account of the agricultural population of the United States,
and shall speak of farm-life in New England (the East-
ern), the Middle, and Western States ; and of plantation-
life in the Southern States. It is now generally acknowl-
edged that the prosperity of America depends chiefly upon
its agriculture, and that it has come to be considered the
granary of Europe. The area of land susceptible of culti-
vation has been estimated to be about two thousand two
hundred and fifty millions (2,250,000,000) of acres, more
than half of which is owned by the Government; five hun-
dred millions (500,000,000) having been surveyed, and is
now ready for occupation ; wdiile the lands under cultivation
amount to more than two hundred millions (200,000,000)
of acres. It has also been estimated that seven-eighths of
the entire population of the country are engaged in agri-
cultural pursuits, or in the various professions and trades
naturally dependent thereupon. The largest wheat crop
ever produced in the States was in 1869, when the yield
amounted to two hundred and sixty-four millions (264,000,-
000) of bushels, and, as the average price was one dollar
and forty cents ($1.40), the total cash value was not less
than $369,600,000. The quantity of corn was 1,100,000,000
bushels; rye, 22,000,000; barley, 28,000,000; buckwheat,

160 LIFE AND RESOURCES 12^ AMERICA.

17,000,000; oat?, 275,000,000, and potatoes, 111,000,000;
hay, 22,000,000 tons; tobacco, 310,000,000 pounds; cane-
sugar, 120,000,000 pounds, and cotton, 1,767,000,000
pounds, valued at $147,380,000. And, as to domestic ani-
mals, including young cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, their
value was 1978,872,785.

With these few leading facts before him, the reader may
obtain an approximate idea of the agricultural wealth of
the country : and he must remember, that the very nume-
rous unmentioned articles would swell the agricultural
supplies to the extent of many additional millions. It is
claimed by English farmers that, in some particulars, their
method of farming is superior to that practised in this
country, and that is undoubtedly true ; but, on the other
hand, it has been demonstrated that the leading grains
can be produced at a much lower cost in the United States
than in England. As this is pre-eminently an agricultural
country, it follows that here the most numerous attempts
to produce labor-saving implements have been directed to
facilitate the labors of the farm. The extent to which new
agricultural inventions have been patented is so great, that
in 1869 they reached the number of nineteen hundred
(1,900), and all of them for saving muscular power on the
farm and in the household. A particular account of them
is as follows: Churns and churning, 130; Corn-shellers
and buskers, 40; Cultivators, 150; Diggers and spaders,
30; Fertilizers, 6; Forks (hay, manure, etc.), 100; Har-
rows, drays, and jDulverizers, 80; Harvesters and attach-
ments, 195; Hay-spreaders, 25; Hoes, 25; flowing and
reaping machines, 30; Planters, 150; Ploughs and attach-
ments, 255 ; Pruning, 15 ; Rakes, 90 ; Seeding and sowing,

l.IFE AMOXG THE FARMERS AXD PLANTERS.

161

80; Separators and smut-machines, 50; Straw, hay, and
fodder-cutters, 30; Threshing-machines, 35; and Yokes,
15. In the more settled parts of the country the old-
fashioned varieties of the hoe, the spade, and even the
ploughshare, are now looked upon as barbarous con-
trivances, and in their place the farmers use what are
called Steam-ploughs, the Rotary Spade, the Sulky-plough,
Ilorse-Cultivators, Shovel-plough^ as well as Reaping,
Mowing, and Tlireshing machines, of many varieties. The
improvements that have been made in such tools as the
shovel, spade, hoe, and fork, are so great that they may al-
most be considered entirely new inventions. With regard to
these and many other implements of husbandry in America,
lightness, simplicity, and comparative cheapness are abso-
lutely essential to their perfection. One of the effects, if
not the most important, of these labor-saving machines has
been, that, while one man has been kept in the field, three
have been sent to the great towns to prosecute other
enterprises of profit, or have entered upon the cultivation
of other farms. The organization of Agricultural Societies,
which have done much to perfect the science of tilling the
soil, was commenced shortly after the establishment of the
Government in 1775, and their influence, in connection
with annual fairs, has been wide-spread, and of the greatest
advantage. There is not a State in the Union which does
not boast of one of them, organized for the benefit of all
the inhabitants at large. Nor ought the fact to be for-
gotten, that there are already many Agricultural Colleges
in the country, and that they are annually increasing in
numbers and influence. And then, again, the agricultural
periodicals are numerous and of high repute.

162 LIFE AND RESOURCES IX AMERICA.

But notwithstanding all these facts, experienced men
have expressed the opinion that the condition of agricul-
ture in this country is not what might be desired. The great
trouble is the want of proper method. The art is as yet
imperfectly known and practised, and the American system
is full of deficiencies. The domain of the United States em-
braces soil capable of yielding the richest and most varied
productions, in the greatest abundance ; and it is a peculiar
feature of the country, that all the lands which have been
sold by the Government, or are still owned by the same,
are surveyed upon a system of squares, and divided into
townships of six miles square, subdivided into sections and
quarter sections, whereby the farms are generally regular
in shaj^e, and disputes are avoided in regard to boundary
lines. The lands belonging to the Government are sold at
the uniform price of one dollar and a quarter (81.25) per
acre, so that for one hundred dollars a new settler can
receive a farm of eighty acres; but, under existing laws, a
foreigner, as well as a native, if of age and intending to
become a citizen, obtains a homestead substantially as a
free gift. The total quantity of land owned by the
Government was 1,834,968,400 acres; of which 447,266,190
acres have been sold; and the amount now for sale is
1,387,732,209 acres. That the National Government takes
a deep interest in the welfare of the agricultural popula-
tion is proven by the fact that a Department of Agricul-
ture exists in Washington, which annually publishes a
very valuable volume of miscellaneous information, and
supplies seeds and cuttings for all who may apply for
them, while the postal laws of the country allow their
transportation through the mails free of expense; the same

LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 16^

laws making only a small charge for the exchange of seeds,
cuttings, and plants between private parties: but more
than all that, the I^ational Government has recently made
a grant of seven millions (7,000,000) of acres of land for
the benefit of Agricultural Colleges, and propositions are
now pending for giving away nearly twenty millions
(20,000,000) acres of land for objects directly or indirectly
connected with the farming population of the Republic.
The total number of farms in the United States is about
three millions, which gives a farm for every thirteen of
the entire population ; and the largest proportion of these
farms range from twenty to one hundred acres.

And now we propose to give a description in general
terms of farm-life in the New England States (the six
Eastern States), viz. : Maine, Massachusetts, ]N"ew Hamp-
shire, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. In this
region the farms are almost universally small, ranging from
ten to one hundred acres, and stone-fences predominate
above all other kinds. The agricultural season is short,
winter lasting through half the year. No verdure but that
of evergreens resists the annual cold, and an unmelted mass
of snow covers the ground for months. The soils, except-
ing in the more extensive valleys, are poor and rocky, and
aside from those farms which are given up chiefly to the
grazing of cattle or the production of hay, the products of
the earth are only obtained by the severest kind of labor.
Along the sea-shore, kelp and fish are popular manures,
but in the interior, guano, calcareous manures, and the
yield of the barn-yards are employed. The owner is, him-
self, the forenK)st workman, and his sons, his principal
assistants : and all household matters are performed by the

164 LIFE AXD RESOURCES I:N" AMERICA.

females of the family. The farmers live in comfortable
frame houses, very frequently surrounded with flowers, use
both coal and wood for fuel, and are noted for tlieir fru-
gality and neatness. Their barns are spacious and sub-
stantial. They produce nothing for exportation, but a
greater variety of crops than the more extensive farmers,
and are quite content if they can obtain a plain, comforta-
ble support. In Vermont, the raising of superior breeds
of horses has been a specialty, but for farm-work, oxen are
more popular than horses. If the farmers happen to have
a small surplus of any commodity, they dispose of it in a
neighboring town ; and thus provide themselves with lux-
uries, or put aside a little money for a rainy day. In some
localities agriculture is often joined to other employments,
such as fishing and shoemaking. The farmers in New
England, as well as throughout the country, are generally
a reading people, and profit somewhat by the published
theories on the science of agriculture. Their children have
access to the country schools, but the sons are often obliged
to help their parents in the field during the vernal months,
so that their principal time for study is in the winter.
They are a church-going people, and, to the extent of their
means, liberal in furthering the cause to which they may
be attached. They take an interest in politics, and are
decided in their opinions. They are social in their dispo-
sitions, fond of visiting their friends, and on winter even-
ings have what they call apple-paring and bed-quilting
frolics, when their homes are cheered by such refreshments
as mince and pumpkin pies, as well as cider, walnuts, and
apples. Their amusements are as various as their tastes,
but the j)erpetual struggle with mother earth for the means

LIFE AMONG FARMERS AND PLANTERS. 165

of living, makes them careful of their time, and is apt to
induce and keep alive the most serious views of life. On
tarms lying in the vicinity of villages, it is often the case,
that certain members of the family obtain positions in the
factories or other manufacturing establishments, whereby
they are enabled to increase their means of support. As
soon as the boys attain the age of manhood, they find their
fields of operation circumscribed, and leaving the paternal
roof, wander forth into the world to make their own for-
tunes: — some of them to the turmoil and strife of the large
cities, and others to the more inviting regions of the great,
and not yet fully developed, West. In New England, farm-
life is to-day very much what it was a generation ago ;
and from the very nature of the cold and barren soil, will
so continue Avithout any marked progress. The farmers
have done their best, in fiict all that could be done ; every-
thing is finished, and they are contented. It is not that the
spirit of competition has died out there. That the agri-
cultural interests of New England have reached and passed
the period of culmination is undoubtedly true. The farmers
of this region are more truly the yeomanry of the land
than any other class, and a large proportion of them are
natives of the soil they now cultivate, and, like the venera-
ble oaks and elms which adorn many of their farms, they
are content to live in the present as in the past, hoping
that any family off"shoots that may have been planted in
more congenial and productive soils will be, as they have
been in unnumbered instances, a blessing to their descend-
ants.

We now pass over into what are called the four Middle
States of the Union, viz. : New York, Pennsylvania, New

. 166 LIFE AN"D EESOUECES IN" AMEEICA.

Jersey, and Delaware, where we shall find a somewhat
different condition of affairs, but with the stamp of New
England manners and customs everywhere visible. There
the average size of farms is between one hundred and one
hundred and fifty acres, and, generally speaking, the soil is
productive. The fences are usually made of rails, and
every variety of manure is employed. If not rich, the
farmers are in easy circumstances, and count upon annually
laying up something handsome in the way of profits.
Though well posted in their business, by years of practical
experience, they employ a needed supply of hands, w^ho
do most of the hard work, while their own time is occupied
Vi^ith the lighter duties of the farm and a general super-
vision of affairs. Their houses are comfortable and often
elegant, and afford ample accommodation for the proprietor,
his family, and his assistants. While those of New York,
where the native American element prevails, fare sumptu-
ously on the food of their own raising, and have become
celebrated for their superior butter and cheese, the farmers
of Dutch descent, located in Pennsylvania, are charged
with never eating what might be readily sold at the nearest
market. It is to the credit of these farmers that their
barns are unequalled in this country, oftentimes better than
the houses they live in, and that with them, the profits of
their style of farming are always satisfactory. With
regard to the cheese business, it has come to be so exten-
sive that we may allude to it more particularly. The
entire produce of last year was about one hundred millions
of pounds, three-fourths of which was made in the Middle
States, but the largest amount in New York.

From time immemorial the Dutch have had control of

LIFE A3I0XG FARMEKS AXD PLANTERS. 167

this business, but the exports from this country are now
about double of the exports from Holland. Formerly it
was the custom of the farmers to make cheese upon their
respective farms, but it is now made in regularly established
factories, which are supported by the farmers located in
their vicinity. The total number of these factories now
flourishing in this country is thirteen hundred, and they are
supplied with milk from not less than three hundred
thousand cows. In New Jersey and Delaware, and on
Long Island, where the chief attention is devoted to fruits
and vegetables, and where are to be found the most beau-
tiful gardens in the country, the hired hands are more
numerous than elsewhere, in proportion to the size of the
farms or gardens, but their positions are not so permanent.
Various kinds of berries are here raised in the greatest
abundance, and the surplus hands left unemployed after
the annual gatherings have to seek other employment.

In the great majority of cases, the proprietor joins his
hired men in the work to be done, whether in casting the
seed, driving the machinery employed, or gathering in the
harvests; they all occupy the same platform as citizens,
whether naturalized, or natives of the country : free access
to schools and churches is enjoyed by all, without regard
to family or fortune ; and the man who is working to-day
as a hired hand, knows full well, that if he continues to be
true to himself and his opportunities, he will yet be res-
pected as a proprietor. By means of newspapers and books,
they keep up with the spirit of the age ; and, though gener-
ally disinclined to participate in the partisan squabbles of the
day, they are by no means indifferent to the welfare of the
country, and are frequently called upon to fill offices of trust

168 LIFE A]S"D RESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

and honor. They rise early, eat a frugal meal at noon, and
retire at the coming on of darkness, excepting in the winter,
which is their time for visiting and home enjoyments; and
this is true of the farming classes generally throughout the
country. What are called fancy farmers are probably
more numerous in the Middle States than in any other
region, but these men are apt to spend more money than
they make; and an idea of the wealth which some of them
attain, may be gathered from the fact that there is one
family in the Valley of the Genesee, in New York, who
own not less than thirty thousand acres of land, and all of
it in the highest state of cultivation. It is this class of the
more wealthy farmers, residing in all the States, who greatly
benefit the country by introducing the best kinds of stock
from foreign countries, who have been known to pay
twenty thousand dollars for a single stallion (horse), two
or three thousand for a heifer, a ram, or a bull, or one hun-
dred dollars for a trio of fowls, consisting of one male and
two females. It was one of these extensive farmers who
inaugurated the plan of issuing printed cards with the fol-
lowing regulations, for the guidance of his men : " Regu-
larity in hours. Punctuality in cleaning and putting away
implements. Humanity to all the animals. Neatness and
cleanliness in personal appearance. Decency in deport-
ment and conversation. Obedience to the proprietor, and
ambition to excel in farming." Extensive and various as
are the farming interests of the Middle States, and so great
are the temptations to go farther west, the demand for farm-
hands and female servants is always greater than the sup-
ply, and while the men receive from fifteen to thirty dol-
lars per month, with board, the women receive from eight

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS A]S"D PLAXTERS. 169

to fifteen dollars per month for home-work, and of these,
by far the largest proportion are from England, Ireland,
and German3^ The secret of the unparalleled growth and
the daily increasing power of the United States is, that the
Government, in its practical working, is confined to the
narrowest limits; that it is the agent, not the master, of
the people ; and that the latter initiate all changes in its
political and social life. It is, therefore, the condition of
the success of a settlement that the immigrant relies on
his own strength, acts on his own responsibility, and seeks
by his own efibrts the prosperity which he is sure to find,
if undisturbed. In spite of obstacles and disappointments,
he will make his way, and ultimately attain his objects.
In the States now under consideration, as well as in all the
States of the Union, excepting New York and a few
others, a married woman may not convey her separate
real estate, except in a joint deed with her husband; and
yet, in most of the States, the separate property of the wife
is recognized. There is no imprisonment for debt in any
part of the Republic ; and, when a farmer has become in-
volved (in more than half the States), his homestead is
exempt from execution ; and in all of them, household fur-
niture to the extent of five hundred dollars, wearing ap-
parel, tools, and books necessary to carry on business, one
to five cows, one yoke of oxen, ten sheep, carts, and farm-
ing implements, and the uniform and arms of any man
who is or has been in the public service, are also exempt,
from the grasp of the creditor. When the head of a family
dies without making a will, his property is equally divided
among his children or their oflTr^pring, except that the wife
has a life-interest of one-third, called the widow's dower;

ITO LIFE AIs'D EESOUECES IX AMERICA.

and when there are no lineal descendants, the estate goes
to the next of kin.

The next division of farm-life we have to consider, is that
of the Western States. Of these there are sixteen in all,
thirteen in the valley of the Mississippi River, and three on
the Pacific Ocean. Their extent is so immense, and their
products so numerous, that it is difficult for the mind to
comprehend their importance and influence. Four of them
were, until recently, classed among the Slave States ; and
because the system of slave-labor therein has become
greatly modified by free-labor, they can hardly be, with
propriety, embraced in our present review. As a wheat-
producing region, the Western States have progressed in a
manner perfectly amazing, until they now stand unsur-
passed by any other region of like extent in the world.
Although the population has increased about fifty per cent,
in tlie last twenty years, the increase of produce has greatly
exceeded that of population. But the relative value of all
the other cereals and other farm productions in these States is
quite as extensive and remarkable as that of wheat. That
the people who are annually bringing out of the soil such im-
mense wealth are wide-awake and industrious, is self-evident.
Generally speaking, the farms are much larger than those
in the Middle States, and the farm-hands very much more
numerous. Very many of the farmers with whom we
come in contact, seem to have settled in the country with
limited means. Some bought land with no more money
than would pay the first installment on it, and had to work
for others to make money to pay the other installments as
they came due. They are able, in this way, in a few years
to settle down and cultivate their own soil : and this meth-

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS AlsB PLAXTERS. 171

od of operating is in progress to-day. When farms are
rented, which is often done, the system adopted is as fol-
lows: If the tenant is not able to provide stock, imple-
ments, and seeds, the proprietor supplies him with all these,
and then allows him one-third of the grain-crops. In this
way many a man works himself into a farm of his own.
The ordinary rate of interest on borrowed money is ten
per cent. , but even at this high rate it usually pays a farm-
er well, and there is every facility given to respectable and
industrious men. There are often cultivated farms in
the market for sale, but persons desiring to purchase can-
not always be present ; and, in buying second-hand farms,
it is well to be certain that it has not been previously
mortgaged. As is the case in all other branches of business,
the man w^ho has the best capacity is likely to be the most
successful, and the operations of some of the more famous
farmers in the West sound more like romance than reality.
For example, there was lately one farm in Illinois which
contained about forty thousand acres, with one pasture-
field of eight thousand acres ; its chief production was
corn, all of which was consumed upon the farm itself; but
in one year the proprietor sent to New York City cattle
enough to bring seventy thousand dollars, while his home-
stock was valued at one million of dollars ; and yet, the
man lived in a small house, in the most simple and unpre-
tending style, and habitually sat down at the same table
with his hired men. But the farming exploits of this man
were eclipsed subsequently by those of another, who is now
carrying on a farm of fifty thousand acres. With regard
to another of the model farms of Illinois, we may state,
that it contains thirty-six thousand acres, and last year had

172 LIFE A^^D RESOURCES li^ AMERICA.

one cornfield of five thousand five hundred acres, yielding
two hundred and twenty thousand bushels, three thousand
tons of hay, four thousand head of cattle, and gave emjDloy-
ment to eighty-five ploughs, fifteen planting machines, and
fifteen mowing machines. The hedge fencing on this farm
measures about one hundred and thirty miles, and contains
also about eighty miles of board fencing. There is, how^ever,
still another farm, located in Illinois, which ought to be men-
tioned in this place, as it is reputed to be one of the most
extensive and successful in the world. It is called the Burr
Oak Farm, and is owned by a man named SuUivant. It
embraces sixty-five square miles ; and although the owner
commenced work upon it only four years ago, he has at the
present time growing upon it not less than eleven thousand
acres of corn, and five thousand acres, besides, planted in
miscellaneous crops. The hedges which cross, re-cross, and
surround the farm, measure three hundred miles, the board
fences six miles, and the ditches one hundred and fifty miles.
The workingmen employed on this farm are mostly Swedes
and Germans, number two hundred and fifty, and are con-
stantly employed from the first of April to the first of Jan-
uary. They work ten hours per day, report to the propri-
etor every evening, and are not allowed the use of
intoxicating drinks. The working animals of the farm con-
sist of three hundred and fifty mules, fifty horses, and fifty
yoke of oxen, and it is amply supplied with the ordinary
stock of an extensive farm ; and the leading machinery
employed consists of one hundred and fifty steel ploughs,
seventy-five breaking ploughs ; one hundred and forty-two
cultivators; forty-five corn-planters, and twenty-five har-
rows; and it has one ditching plough w^hich is drawn by

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS AXD PLAXTERS. 173

sixty-eight oxen and managed by eight men. The house in
which tlie proprietor resides is a common wooden structure,
comfortable, but without the least pretension. It will be
understood, of course, that farms of this extent are not
found in every county or State ; but they give us an idea
of the spirit that animates the fiirming fraternity generally.
Let us now, on the other hand, look at the operations of
one or two small farmers in Illinois. One man, for example,
purcliased eighty acres of prairie land for 8360 ; spent
$500 on improvements; his crops for the first year brought
him over $1,500, and at the close of the third year his
farm was sold for $2,000. Another man, with a capital of
only $700, bought one hundred and sixty acres : his annual
produce for six years was $2,000, at the end of which time
he was worth about ten thousand dollars. And such
instances as the above have occurred by the thousand in
the great West. As Ave glance over the immense number
of farmers who are toiling throughout the western States,
it is quite impossible to depict their manners and customs
with anything like accuracy. So many are the nationalities
wdiich compose thegreat massof iniiabitants, the mere men-
tion of these is indeed a kind of description. In Illinois and
Ohio, tlie Germans, Irish, and English are about equally divi-
ded, inWisconsin the English and Germans predominate, and
Missouri is most extensively settled by the Germans. In the
States bordering on the Great Lakes and the Upper Mississippi
several Scandinavian colonies have been established ; and
there has been a considerable immigration of Chinese into
California, but this latter class has not manifested any
strong predisposition for agricultural pursuits. The great
variety of nationalities which sometimes congregate in one

174 LIFE A^'D RESOURCES I^'" AMERICA.

region, was strikingly exemplified a few years ago, when
the State of Wisconsin was obliged to publish its Govern-
or's message in not less than eight languages. The amount
of money sent across the ocean by immigrants, to friends
left l)ehind, principally to pay their passage to America, is
surprising. From the official returns of Emigration Com-
missioners of England, it appears that in 1870 there were
sent from this country to Ireland, principally, $3,630,040
in gold, of which $1,663,190, was for pre-paid passage. In
the twenty-three years from 1848 to 1870, the amount of
money sent was $81,670,000 in gold, being an average of
about $3,889,047 yearly. But this amount is probably
somewhat below the actual amount, as it only includes
what has been sent through banks and commercial houses.
And these sums, large as they are, are made up by careful
savings from the wages of servant-girls and farm-laborers.
In California, Missouri, and Ohio, the grape has been so
extensively cultivated as to give them the reputation of
being the wine-producing regions of the United States ;
and among their vineyards we find many of the habits pre-
vailing which are common to the Avine districts of Europe.
In California a farm is called a ranch, and one of the most
noted ones in that State may be described as follows : It
contains eighteen thousand (18,000) acres; and last year
sixteen hundred (1,600) acres were devoted to wheat,
eight hundred (800) to barley, two hundred (200) to oats,
two hundred (200) to meadow, and about fifteen thousand
(15,000) acres to orchards, vineyards, and pasturage. The
fruit-trees number eight thousand (8,000,) the grape-vines
fifty thousand (50,000) ; and the live stock consists of two
hundred (200) horses, one thousand (1,000) head of cattle,

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS AXD PLANTERS. ITo

tliree thousand (3,000) sheep, and two thousand (2,000)
swine; and the entire domain is surrounded with good
fences. From the above and other facts ah'eady narrated,
it will be seen that the United States are supplied with all
kinds of farmers ; some cultivating their thousands of
acres, and others their half dozen ; and yet they all seem
to live comfortably, and the great majority are inde-
pendent. And there are numerous instances of American
women who have been, and are to-day, quite successful in
the management of farms ; and what will be the result
upon the agricultural and industrial interests of the exten-
sive emigration from China to this country now going on,
is a problem which can only be settled by the future.

Our next subject for consideration is the plantation-life
of the Southern States. Only about six years have now
passed away since the close of the civil war, which resulted
in the emancipation of more than four millions of slaves ;
and a glance at the condition of the South, before the great
event, would seem to be necessary. In 1860 there were
fifteen States in which slavery existed, and all of them,
excepting five, made war upon the General Government —
four of them having already been mentioned as among the
Western States. They contained a population of 4,334,250,
of whom only 383,637 were slave-owners. The number of
plantations under cultivation was estimated at 765,000,
comprehending about 75,000,000 of acres : and as to the cot-
ton and sugar, rice, wheat, corn, and live stock, which w^ere
produced upon them, they can only be appreciated by con-
sulting the publications of the Census Office. The planter
was the owner, not only of broad acres almost without
number, but also of from ten to one thousand menials or

176 LIFE AJTD KESOUKCES liq" AMERICA.

slaves^ whom he feci and clothed for his own exclusive profit ;
and who, for the most part, did his bidding without a mur-
mur or thought beyond the passing hour. He lived at his
ease, among books and in the dispensation of a liberal hospi-
tality, leaving all the labor on his plantation to the direction
of an oversee]-, who sj^ent most of his time on horseback,
issuing orders to the working men and women, and watch-
ing the regular progress of affairs. According to his wealth,
the planter lived in a house, or an elegant mansion, while
his slaves were domiciled in rude but comfortable cabins.
They received a su^^ply of provisions, but no compensation
in money ; although it was customary to allow them the use
of a patch of ground for their own benefit, and a fi-agment
of time out of each day or week to cultivate it. But all
this is now changed : slave-labor has no existence on the
soil of the United States : and the opinion is universal,
that the suppression of slave-labor will ultimately add
greatly to the national advancement of all the States in
which it formerly existed. Among the results following
the late rebellion, was the fact that much of the property
in the Southern States passed into new hands. Many old
plantations were abandoned by their owners and have
never been reclaimed ; others have been confiscated, and
others sold at a ruinous sacrifice. Many of the soldiers
who went South, who had been raised among the rocky
hills of the North, became in love with the rich and beau-
tiful fields and valleys of the South, and thousands resolved
to settle in the new country. They married Southern
women, formed new alliances and associations, and have
opened up a new career for the South, which is rapidly
becoming more and more salutary in its influences. The

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS AXD PLANTERS. 177

great landed estates which have been cut up, ma}^ be pur-
chased by all new comers at a very small cost, while the
black race, to a great extent, have settled upon small
patches of land, where they can maintain themselves in
comfort; and enjoy an independence of thought and feeling
which they did not know under the old order of things.
"Whole jolantations have been settled by families of owners,
who were formerly slaves upon the same estates. Men
who were formerly overseers or superintendents, are them-
selves settling down upon their own newly-acquired farms.
Although attempts to obtain laborers from China and
Sweden have been made, the principal cultivators of the
Southern States are the Freedmen, who, indolent by nature,
do as little work as possible, wall not hire out for more
than a single year, and one of the results of their freedom
is, that they will not let their wives work, as in the olden
times. To retain their services, the planter is obliged to
praise and humor them in many ways. The terms upon
which the negroes are hired is generally to let them have
one-half of what they produce, but when supported by the
planter they receive but one-quarter of what they produce.
When the planters are attentive to their business they
almost invariably succeed, and when unsuccessful as farm-
ers, they are apt to help their pockets by keeping small
country stores ; and in all the towns are located men who
are called warehouse-men, whose business is to receive,
store, and sell all the cotton or other produce which may
be consigned to their care. What the people of the South
now need is help — not lands; and in many of the most
fertile regions, every inducement is thrown out to invite
emigration from the North. But, aftei- all, it is idle to

178 LIFE AIs'D KESOURCES IK AMERICA.

suppose that the griefs, the passions, and animosities en-
gendered by the late rebellion, will die out while the
present generation survives. Too many brave men have
joerished, too many homes made desolate, too many fami-
lies broken up and reduced to beggary, to expect anything
of that sort. Men whom it has impoverished will live and
die poor, remembering constantly the cause of their
poverty. Widows will long mourn over husbands, chil-
dren over fathers, slain in battle. A new and happier era
is in store for the rising generation ; but its advance will
be slow. The people of the North and of the South, it is
fondly hoped and believed, will again become a happy, a
united, and prosperous people ; united in interests, in pur-
suits, in intelligence, and in patriotic devotion to their
united country.

Of all the products grown in the Southern States the
most important and universal is cotton, and it has been
asserted that it was this single commodity which prevented
that portion of the Union from relapsing into abject
poverty. Everything was sacrificed to slavery, and
slavery sacrificed everything to itself; and as there were
not slaves enough to cultivate the soil as it needed, cotton-
raising was all that saved the country. The principal
States where cotton is now grown are Mississippi, Ala-
bama, Louisiana, Georgia, Texas, and Arkansas, and in all
of them eiforts are being made for the introduction of
Chinese labor. The cultivation of rice is limited to three
States, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana; sugar-
cane and its products, — in the way of sugar and molasses,
— to Louisiana. In Florida considerable attention is paid
to the cultivation of oranges, lemons, and other tropical

LIFE AMOXG FARMERS AND PLAXTERS. 179

fruits: wheat and tobacco have occupied the chief atten-
tion of farmers in Virginia and the neighboring States of
Tennessee and Kentucky : Xorth Carolina has acquired a
reputation for its sweet potatoes and ground-nuts. Indian
corn is an important product in all the Southern States ;
while the mountain-lands, which in all directions are
covered with grass as w^ell as extensive forests, are devoted
to the grazing of cattle in great numbers, where they
flourish throughout the year without shelter or any special
care. In all the States lying directly on the Gulf of Mexico
the climate is mild, the winters short, open, and delightful,
and farm-work can be done every month in the year.
They begin there to make their gardens in December, and
until the following December there is a continuous succes-
sion of crops. The people live easily, and produce more
for the same amount of labor than in any of the Northern
States. Lands are cheap, and may often be paid for by a
single crop. The timber is everywhere magnificent, and
the lands are irrigated by numerous streams, and adapted
to an unlimited variety of products. And for the raising
of cattle there is not a region, probably, in tlie world,
better suited for that purpose than the extensive State of
Texas. In some localities, the cattle may be counted by
the thousand, and it is an amazing fact that droves of
them are annually sent by the stock-raisers as far off as
California; and Texas cattle have even been butchered in
the city of Xew York, and even cargoes of Texas beef
have been shipped in ice to Philadelphia. From ten to
twelve men are required for a herd of a thousand cattle,
with two horses or mules to each man, for day and night
duty; the cattle needing to be herded at night to prevent

180 LIFE AN"D RESOURCES I^ AMERICA.

stampedes. For those who have never witnessed its
operations, it is difficult to realize the extent of this cattle
traffic, and it is sometimes the case that the whole earth
seems to be covered with the herds, as far as the eye can
reach over the vast prairies. The class of people com-
monly known as the "Texas Cow-boys" are indeed a
power in the land, whose exploits and lives of adventure
are more like romance than reality. And here, in passing,
we may with propriety devote a paragraph to the various
modes employed by farmers in fencing. In those regions
where loose rocks are abundant, stone walls are almost
universal: where both stone and wood are scarce, they
have a fashion of planting trees and shrubbery: as a
matter of taste, wire fences are occasionally employed. In
all localities where wood is abundant, they make what are
called post and rail, and worm fences. It is said that the
fences of N"ew York have cost $144,000,000, those of Penn-
sylvania $120,000,000, Ohio, $115,000,000, and South Caro-
lina, $20,000,000, while the fences of the whole Union are
estimated at $1,300,000,000. These figures are enormous,
but they tend to exhibit the extent of the farming interests
of America.

Having now taken a general survey of the agricultural
population of America, we shall conclude what we have to
say. with a few remarks on their manners and customs, as
exemplified by certain amusements, which are, for the most,
peculiar to this country. And first, as to the sugar-making
frolics. In various parts of the Union, large quantities of
sugar are annually made from the sap of the maple-tree.
The moment Winter breaks, and the sap begins to ascend in
the Spring, the trees are tapped, and the liquid thus obtain-

LIFE AMONG FAEMEES AXD PLxVN"TERS. 181

ed is boiled doAvn until it becomes a rich syrup or granulat-
ed suo^ar. All this takes place in the dense woods, and
most of the work is performed at night. xVt the close of
the season the farmers invite their friends and neighbors to
a kind of jubilee, which is held in the sugar-camps, and
where, with sumptuous fare, followed by music and danc-
ing, the entire night is given to enjoyment; and when the
last cauldron of sugar has been made, and daylight has
appeared, the company is dispersed, and the sugar utensils
are packed away until the coming of another season. Cor-
responding to the above, in most of the corn-growing
regions they have what are called " Corn-IIusklnrjsr This
entertainment occurs when a farmer is anxious to prepare
for market an unusual quantity of the yellow maize ; and
in the Xorth or West, when the young men and country
lasses have met, they are piloted to the spacious and sweet-
smelling barn, and for a stated time all work without ceas-
ing, until the allotted task is performed ; an adjournment
then takes place to the farm-house, where feasting and
dancing continue all the night long. When this frolic oc-
curs in the South, the colored people there do the work,
and enjoy themselves in their own rude but amusing ways,
while the white people for whom they may happen to be
working, act as the hosts, content to enjoy the laughable
scenes brought to view. In the Xew England States, es-
pecially those regions bordering on the sea, they have what
are called " Clam-Bal^esP These are usually attended by
men only, who congregate from various quarters, for the
purpose of exchanging political opinions, and having a
systematic good time; when speeches are delivered, and
large quantities of cheering beverages are imbibed, as well

182 LIFE AisT EESOURCES IK AMERICA.

as clams eaten, after a primitive fashion. The shell-fish are
roasted in an open field, and duly prepared with the desired
condiments. These affairs take place in the summer, after
the leading harvests have been gathered in. In the
Southern States certain festivals are common, but more so
before the late war than now, which are known as '''Barbe-
cues.^'' They are political, and sometimes bring together
very large numbers of the planters and their families, and
the time is generally devoted to speech-making, happily
varied by eating and drinking the good things of the land.
The principal food on these occasions consists of beef or
mutton, and the oxen or sheep are roasted entire, over a
pit duly prepared, and filled with burning coals. The
cooks and caterers are generally negro men and women,
and, as they have the privilege of inviting their own friends,
the groves where they assemble present a varied and fan-
tastic scene. The young people have it all their own way,
and there is no end to the variety of their amusements.
Another rural custom is known as a '''■ House- Raising.''''
This occurs after some farmer has prepared his timber for
a new house or barn, when he invites his friends and
neighbors to come and help him to lift the timbers and cross-
pieces into their proper places. This invitation is always
cheerfully accepted, and most of the time is devoted to
downright hard work. But after the task has been accom-
plished, the men have a substantial feast, and a good long
talk about their farms, their crops, and cattle, and commonly
separate with a warm brotherly feeling for each other, and
for their fellow-men everywhere. In some of the fruit-grow-
ing regions, large quantities of apples ai-e stripped of their
skins, cut into quarter pieces, and hung up to dry for win-

LIFE AMOIS-G FARMEES AXD PLA:I^TEES. 183

ter iise, and in that condition become a sonrce of revenue.
Out of this variety of business has grown an autumnal
festival called an " Apple- Paring:'' This takes place in
the evening : the guests are invited as to an ordinary party,
and after a few hours' attention to business, the night is
given np to feasting and dancing, or the playing of inno-
cent games by the young people, who compose the majority.
Ball-playing and Sleigh-riding are two other pastimes in
which the Americans indulge with rare gusto. By the rural
population Saturday afternoon is usually assigned to the
former, on which occasions the young men are as active and
expert in throwing and catching, or striking the ball, as if
they had been idle all the previous week, instead of having
had to work in the fields with the utmost energy. Sleigh-
riding, of course, takes place in the winter only, when the
ground is covered with snow, and then it is that the young
farmers bring out their best horses, fill their sleighs with
lady friends, enveloped in gayly trimmed furs, and, to the
exhilarating music of the bells, start off on all sorts of ex-
peditions over the neighboring country. From time im-
memorial it has been the custom among the negroes of the
South to devote the last week of the year, commonly
called Christmas Holidays, to every variety of amusement.
When slavery existed, those prolonged festivities were
freely accorded to the slaves, and were full of romantic
interest ; but now that they are free, the colored people
claim their old privilege as a right, but do not find the
same unalloyed enjoyment as of old in their annual frolic.
They have not as yet arrived at that stage when they can
enjoy the blessing of supporting themselves. About the
close of the year they have in various parts of the country

184 LIl^'r< AKD RESOURCES li^ AMERICA.

what they call " Shooting Matches:' These are of two
kinds, one, where turkeys and other birds are tied to a stake,
and made a target for men who like to shoot the rifle, and
experienced shots sometimes w^in a sufficient quantity of
large poultry to supply all their friends. Another kind of
match is, when two parties pit themselves against each
other, and go upon a hunt for a day or a week, for squirrels
or birds of game, wiien the victors are rewarded with a
prize of some kind, paid for by the losing party. And then
they have throughout the country such rural jollifications
as Sheejy- Shearing^ Ploitghing Hatches, and, to the discredit
of the participants, Cock-Fightings, which need not be
described. But of all rural assemblages none are so gener-
ally popular as country Fairs. They occur in the Autumn
in numerous localities, and bring together thousands of the
agricultural population. The first agricultural Fair ever
organized in this country by any of the colored population,
was recently carried through with success in the State of
Kentucky. Farm products, animals, and country fabrics
are exhibited to a marvellous extent, in many of these Fairs.
All sorts of friendly competitions are entered into, and
Horse-racing has become an important adjunct to all these
Fairs, whether patronized by the State at large or confined
to the counties w^here they are held. But the crow^ning
custom, and the one most universally recognized by the
American people, is the celebration of what is known as
TlianJcsgiving Bay. It is an annual festival, honored by
proclamations from the President and the local Governors,
who specify the particular day ; and of all places to enjoy
it, none can be compared to the house of a successful far-
mer. The primary object of this festival is to recognize

LIFE AMONG FARMERS AKD PLA:N'TER3. 185

the goodness of the Ahiiighty in crowning the labors of
the field with prosperity, and the occasion is made especially
joyous by the gathering together, under one roof, all the
scattered members of the family in the old home. There
are some other rural customs which might be mentioned
in this place, but as they are of a religious character we
shall defer them for a subsequent chapter of this volume.

COMMERCIAL LIFE AI^D DEYELOP-
MEj^TS.

The inland and coast-line navigation of the United
States is not surpassed, in extent and character, by any
country on the globe ; and the industry and enterprise of
the Americans, in developing their commercial and ship-
ping interests, has been, until within the last few years,
equal to their superior advantages. Passing by all statis-
tics in regard to the tonnage of the country, let us take a
brief survey of the vessels and navigators which have
given the country its reputation. By far the largest pro-
portion of American vessels are run upon inland waters,
and are called small craft ; but the sea-going vessels, if less
numerous, are generally as large as those of any other
nation, and have been constructed on unsurpassed models.
The ships called "Liners," which, a few years ago, ran
between New York and Liverpool, acquired wide celebrity,
and have never been surpassed for beauty and speed. But
they have been superseded by steamers, and ships of that
class now transact the same business. The burthen of
those sailing-vessels was about two thousand tons ; they
w^ere splendidly equipped, swift, were commanded and
manned by the best metal, and did an immense business
in bringing merchandise and immigrants to America. But,
with the calamities that have befallen the mercantile
marine of this country, they have nearly all passed away.

COMMERCIAL LIFE AXD DEVELOPMEXTS. 187

During the fiscal year of 1870, there were less than one
hundred thousand tons of sea-going vessels built in the
United States, and less than three hundred thousand tons
of all descriptions of vessels, which amount was about
equalled by the vessels built on the Clyde alone, while the
tonnage of steam-vessels, built all in England, was sixty
times greater than tliat of America. One result of this
falling off in American ship-building has been that large
numbers of men, who were brought up on the ocean, are
seen turning their attention to a variety of pursuits con-
nected wholly with the land. The inland waters of the
country are most abundantly supplied with steamboats,
and all the varieties of the smaller sailing-vessels; the
coasting trade and fishing interests are quite as important
and extensive as heretofore, but new vessels are by no
means now turned out with the rapidity that they were a
few years ago. It was the late war, also, which helped to
put back the carrying trade of America, but with the re-
turn of peace and the final restoration of the Union, the
old order of things began to be restored. When the great
rebellion, or rather the British cruisers sailing under its
flag, drove American shipping from the seas, and thus
transferred the carrying trade to foreign bottoms, the com-
merce of Philadelphia suffered in common with that of
other cities. The substitution of iron for wood, at about
the same time, as the material for first-class steamships,
left the country not only without ships, but behind other
nations in facilities for making them. Boston, New York,
and Baltimore soon recovered in good part their former
commerce, through the help of foreign subsidized steam-
ship lines. But Philadelphia, more thoroughly imbued

188 LIFE AXD RESOURCES IK AMERICA.

wiUi American ideas, made little efFort to secure such for-
eign lines, but waited to build a line of her own, which
will soon be established between that city and Liverpool.
In 1860 the tonnage of the United States amounted to
5,853, 86S tons, and in 1870, to 4,246,507 tons. Notwith-
standing the above facts, however, the commerce of the
country is very large and flourishing, since it appears that
the American imports for 1870 amounted to about
$600,000,000, and the exports about $400,000,000. The
great variety of native productions exported from Amer-
ica gives assurance of the impossibility of failure in
the resources of the nation. For example, from the
sea, they have such products as oil, Avhalebone, sperm-
aceti, and many kinds, in great abundance, of fish ; fram
the forest, timber, shingles, staves, lumber, naval stores,
and furs; from agriculture, every description of corn
and vegetable food, and the products of animals, in the
way of beef, pork, tallow, hides, bacon, cheese, butter,
wool, lard, and hams, with horned cattle, horses, and
other animals. From the Southern States they have cot-
ton, tobacco, rice, and sugar; from the factories, every
variety of useful goods ; while their exports of specie and
bullion have never been exceeded by any other nation.
And as to their imports, they are simply enormous— silks,
woolen goods, tea, coffee, and sugars being the most im-
portant, and for which there has always been a demand.
But the crowning element of American commerce is its in-
ternal trade ; and in this connection we cannot, perhaps,
mention a more remarkable fact than this, that the produc-
tion of spirituous liquors in 1870 amounted to $600,000,000
— the persons engaged in selling it by retail, numbering

COMMERCIAL LIFE AXD DEVELOPMENTS.

189

not less than 150,000; while the importation of opium,
from China, amounted to nearly $2,000,000. The dis-
tances in America are so great, that the internal trade
and traffic of the country has been, and must always
be, a business of vast importance. And the extent of
territory implies great diversity of productions. The
growths of tropical regions are exchanged for the field-
crops and forest produce of cooler latitudes; and in another
direction, the products of the coast and of extensive interior
districts are exchanged. The tide of emigration sets from
east to west, while the tide of commerce flows from west to
east ; and we can only obtain an adequate idea of the in-
land commerce, by considering the enormous extent of the
inland shipping and the railway facilities of the country.

But it is with the social aspect of American commerce
that we have to do at the present time. The grand busi-
ness centre of the nation is Xew York City. Having direct
and constant intercourse with all parts of the Avorld, the
nationality of its merchants is as varied as the countries
which they represent. Of the native-born merchants the
most numerous and successful originated in the New En-
gland States, and are distinguished for their intelligence,
ability, and elevated personal characteristics. They live
in elegant houses, and, while surrounded by all the appli-
ances of prosperity and wealth, are not prone to making a
greater display than their less fortunate neighbors; they
are plain in their manners, and hospitable ; and if many of
them happen to indulge in keeping up fancy residences in
the country, the largest proportion are quite content to
spend their summer vacations by the sea-bide, or among
the green hills of their native States. They devote them-

190 LIFE A:N"D EE80URCES I]^ AMERICA.

selves to business with ceaseless activity, and are the men
who generally take pleasure in expending their surplus
capital upon all sorts of benevolent, religious, and educa-
tional institutions. A type of merchants, allied to these, is
also found in all the other cities of the country. Next to
them come the English, French, and German merchants,
who generally deal in the kind of merchandise sent out
from their several countries. In their modes of transactino-
business, and of living, they adhere as closely as possible
to the customs of their native lands, but with many modi-
fications. The particular men who laid the commercial
foundation of Xew York were from Holland, but their
characteristics have been amalgamated with those of the
various nationalities which have, latterly, made that city
the most cosmopolitan in the country. While a very large
trade is carried on between New York and the Oriental
nations, the merchants of Boston have long considered
themselves the special patrons and friends of the far East,
and that city has always been a noted mart for the com-
modities of India, China, and Japan, in which particular it
is now findino^ a rival in San Francisco. Its coastins: trade
is also very extensive, and it is the jDort whence various
manufactures are shipped in immense quantities. The
whaling business, which was formerly divided between
several cities, is now almost entirely confined to New Bed-
ford ; the merchants of which city, like those of Boston,
are proud of their descent from what is called the Puritan
stock. In Philadelphia, where the coasting trade is almost
unparalleled, they have what is called a Quaker element
of population, which has always been noted for its integrity
in matters of business ; but this city is now vying with

COMMERCIAL LIFE AKD DEVELOPMEi^TS. 191

Kew York in the cosmopolitan character of its merchants,
— and in the person of Stephen Girard produced one of the
wealthiest and most eminent merchants in America. With
regard to Baltimore and Charleston, Mobile and New-
Orleans, — all these places are the natural outlets of the
entire Southern half of the United States, and in all of them
may be found an abundant supply of merchants from the
four quarters of the globe. And corresponding with the
cities just named, there are, throughout the interior of the
country, very many cities which have grown into centres
of trade and commerce with marvellous rapidity ; among
them may be mentioned Chicago (whose merchants are
now building up a large tea-trade with China, by way of
San Francisco), Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Cincin-
nati, Louisville, Buffalo, and Pittsburg, in all of which may
be found the principal nationalities of the globe. Looking
at the commercial classes, in the aggregate, it is quite
impossible to give prominence to any nationality ; and it
would seem as if, after a brief residence in America, the
whole mercantile population, with one exception, becomes
permeated with the characteristics of the native-born in-
habitants. The exception alluded to is the Jewish race.
They are found in every city, and almost in every hamlet
—always engaged in bartering and selling, and never iu
producing, and they are pre-eminently a wandering people.
With them, the one great end of life would seem to be to
make money, but where they settle down to enjoy it has
always been a mystery.

In America, as elsewhere, permanent success in business
is chiefly dependent upon character; honest and upright
men are sure to command the respect of their neighbors,

192 ■ LIFE A^^D RESOUECES IK AMERICA.

and wlien unfortunate, always find their fellow-merchants
ready to assist them; and when men of bad repute happen
to make fortunes, they generally find it convenient to set-
tle down among strangers, to enjoy their ill-gotten gains.
One of the effects of the late war in this country was to
enrich a large number of adventurers and unscrupulous men,
who made money by imposing upon the General Govern-
ment, through political intrigues ; and it was because of
their foolishness in spending their money and putting on
airs to which they were not accustomed, that they came to
be known by the opprobrious title of shoddy^ in remem-
brance of a spurious cloth which some of them palmed off for
the use of the army. But the average American merchant
of to-day is a man who deserves and receives universal res-
pect. He is intelligent, but not addicted to the profits
and pleasures of literature. Engaged all day in the ex-
citement of commercial speculation, he has but little time
to devote to reading, and improving his mind. He works
so hard and so constantly, that work becomes a second
nature to him, prostrating his energies and making him
indifferent to proper recreations ; he considers his word as
good as his bond, and, to protect his credit, will make the
greatest sacrifice of property ; he is liberal in his feelings,
and gives freel}^ to all objects which have the sanction of
his good opinion ; he is hospitable, but would prefer to
have his wife and daughters attend to the honors of bis
house and table ; and when overcome by reverses, he takes
a new start, changes the character of his business, perhaps,
and will not acknowledge himself as overwhelmed, and
proves his mettle by attaining final success. Perhaps there
is no feature in the character of the Americans which is so

COMMEECIAL LIFE A2s"D DEVELOPMENTS. 193

remarkable as their spirit of enterprise. It is indeed won-
derful, and is the cause of their success. But it does not
follow that this enterprise is all native-born; a portion
of it is undoubtedly brought into the country by intelligent
men from the leading countries of Europe.

But let us now take a glance at some of the phases of
their commercial life, or rather, at the classes of men who
transact the mercantile business of the country; and first,
as to the shipping merchants. To carry on their business
a large capital is required, and as individuals or organized
companies, they are generally the leading patrons of the
great ship-yards. They have vessels built to order, and
also buy them in open market; they establish lines of com-
munication between home ports, by way of lakes and
rivers, and between the United States and foreign countries ;
and they are the men who so frequently obtain valuable
contracts from the Government for carrying the mails, as in
the case of the Pacific Steamship Company, which receives
not less than five hundred thousand dollars for conveying a
semi-monthly mail from San Francisco to China and Japan.
One of the most famous of these men is named Cornelius
Yanderbilt. Another class of shipping merchants are those
who simply direct or superintend the business for other par-
ties. They are indeed what might be called, more properly,
brokers. The wealthiest man who ever lived in the coun-
try, John Jacob Astor, and who left about $25,000,000, was
at one time engaged in the shipping business, and made a
great deal of money by sending his ships to China; but
he was pre-eminently a trader in furs.* Then come the

* Since this was priutecl it has been stated that W. B. Astor, A. T.
Stewart, and Cornelius Vanderbilt, are each worth sixty millions of
dollars. 9

194 LIFE AlTD KESOURCES IIT AMERICA.

importing merchants. They have their agents located in
foreign countries, purchase and sell their merchandise only
in -the bulk, and are the men who give the greatest impe-
tus to the home trade. Some merchants of this class, en-
gaged in trade with the Oriental nations, have followed the
same business for nearly a century ; many of them, located
in ISTew York and Boston, have acquired immense fortunes,
and it was the son of one of these, James Lenox, who lately
made a donation of a million of dollars for the establishment
of a Library and Gallery of Art in N'ew York. With some
few of these importers the custom prevails of selling their
goods by auction, soon after their arrival ; and in this man-
ner whole cargoes of tea from China or sugar from the
West Indies were sold within the space of half an hour.
But this business has well-nigh been absorbed by the class
known as brokers. Another important class of merchants
are the wholesale dealers or jobbers. They receive their
goods in the bulk from the importers, and sell them by the
piece or in broken packages. They sell on credit, and usu-
ally confine themselves to a particular class, or a few classes
of goods. One house, for example, will sell only silk goods ;
another, all sorts of cotton fabrics ; another, the several
varieties of woolen goods ; another, hardware ; and others,
wooden or fancy goods and groceries of every description.
And then there are what are called the retail merchants.
They constitute the most numerous class, and are to be
found in every city and village of the land. Li the larger
towns there is no mingling of drygoods and groceries, but,
in the hamlets, the merchants find it necessary and to their
advantage to keep for sale everything that the people can
possibly require — from a yard of calico or a piece of ribbon,

COMMERCIAL LIFE AXD DEYELOPMEXTS. 195

a paper of buttons or needles, to a pound of tea or coffee, or
sugar or shot, or a cake of soap. It is sometimes the case,
however, that the importing, jobbing, and retail trades are
carried on by the same firm, and there is one man located
in New York City, Alexander T. Stewart, who is reputed
to be the wealthiest and most influential merchant of this
sort, in the world. His establishments are on the most stu-
pendous scale ; he employs agents and clerks by the hun-
dred ; and his passion for business is so strong that he is
among the first, as well as the last, in his daily attendance
at his enormous warehouses. This man began his career a
poor and friendless boy, and, besides building a palace for
himself, giving away millions for the comfort of the poor, he
is now engaged, at an immense outlay, in founding a model
town in the vicinity of New York. The commission mer-
chants form another very extensive class of the business
men. To carry on their business, less capital is required
than for those already named, but it is important that their
credit should be unimpeachable. They receive goods or
produce from the manufacturers, or farmers, and sell them
to the best advantage, receiving for themselves merely a
certain per cent, on the amount of sales, in the way of com-
mission, for trouble and expenses. With regard to the sub-
ordinates, who are employed by the more important mer-
chants, they consist of drummers, who devote their time to
hunting up customers ; of clerks, who sell goods and keep
the books ; of porters, who pack the goods and do the man-
ual labor ; and of draymen, who carry the merchandise to
the vessels, of every description, and to the railway stations.
But there are certain other classes of business men in all the
commercial marts, whose duties are important and whose

196 LIFE AKD RESOUKCES IN" AMEEICA.

influence is extensive. First among these are the auction-
eers, who sell to the highest bidders, real estate, furniture,
books, works of art, and everything, in fact, which the own-
ers desire to turn rapidly into money; then come the
brokers, who usually devote themselves to one commod-
ity, such as cotton or money, tea and cofiee, sugar or
grain, who have come to be a numerous and useful
class, and who sell only by samples, receiving their
pay like the commission merchants. They transact
the business which was formerly performed by one class
of auctioneers. The class of men known as bankers are
those who conduct the moneyed institutions of the country,
albeit large numbers follow the business on private account,
many of whom, in all the leading cities, have acquired
immense fortunes. Of these, perhaps the most successful
and celebrated is now a retired citizen of Washington, and
who, within the last few years, has given away for pur-
poses of charity and culture many millions of dollars.
And still another class of the business men who are very
numerous and constantly increasing, are known as In-
surance men. They are the managers of extensive cor-
porations, Avho insure, in stated sums of mone}^, all kinds
of property from fire and marine disasters, as well as the
lives of men who desire to secure a competence for their
families in the event of death. From the foregoing state-
ments it will be seen that the machinery of commerce in
this country is fully organized and very complete.

But, fully to comprehend the extent and range of the
commercial interests, we must now turn our attention to
the system of railways, as it exists in the United States.
This is a subject which increases in interest and importance

COMMEECIAL LIFE AXD DEVELOPMEi^'TS. 197

every year. In 1860 this system had ah-eady reached a
development which was justly regarded as amazing. It
was the product of but a short time ; every mile of road
had been built within tlie recollection of men who had not
yet passed middle life, and tliree-fourths of it all within ten
years. Yet there were in operation more than thirty-one
thousand miles of road, wliich, with their equipment, had
absorbed of the capital of the country not less than twelve
hundred and fifty millions of dollars, or ten per cent, of the
entire assessed value of property in the United States.
There were men, however, who protested that this interest
had outgrown the needs of the country, and was the result
of speculative and artificial influences; that it diverted
capital from more useful employments, and tended to
retard the prosperity of the country. Nor have these men
changed their opinion. But what a change has taken
place in this business ! From the official reports we learn
that at the commencement of the present year there were
railroad lines in operation to the extent of more than fifty-
three thousand miles, which, with their equipment, cost
nearly twenty-seven hundred millions of dollars, or twenty-
two per cent, of the entire assessed value of property in
the country. Of these more than eleven thousand miles
have been built within two years, and at an expenditure of
four hundred millions of dollars. In other words, the
people of America have contributed during the last ten
years more than half as much to build railroads as they
have paid in taxes for the support of the Government, includ-
ing the conduct of the war, and are now contributing yearly
for the same purpose two-thirds as much as the whole
revenue of the national treasury. The total earnings of

198 LIFE AKD EESOURCES IIT AMEEICA.

these railroads in 1870 were four hundred and fifty
millions of dollars ; and the gross tonnage transported
equalled one hundred and twenty-five millions of tons,
havino- a value of more than ten thousand millions of
dollars.

Prior to the late war, the American railroads were
regarded almost exclusively in their relations to trade, and
the comprehensive study of them was the concern only of
the economist. But they have now become the centres of
many forms of power in the hands of corporations whose
management is concentrated, secret, and largely irrespon-
sible ; they hold vast accumulations of wealth ; employ a
large proportion of the scientific and practical ability of the
nation ; they exert an "immense influence on all the markets,
and on the social and material welfare of the whole people.
They are also the favorite instruments of speculation, and
sources of sudden profit : they wield political agencies and
parties, in many places, and even dictate to the State
Legislatures. They thus connect themselves with society,
in so many relations, that their growth and influence are
becoming an anxious study, not only for the economist and
the trader, but for the politician, the statesman, and the
moralist. Hitherto, a large part of the capital thus con-
sumed has been borrowed from foreign nations, and the
want is not felt in the United States. But it makes
part of the debt on which the productive industry of the
country must pay the interest. The subject, as it has
been well said, thus presents important and difticult ques-
tions for discussion. But all men must acknowledge that
the rapid progress of this enormous interest is as wonderful
as its present magnitude; and it is plain that of the ultimate

COMMERCIAL LIPE AITD DEYELOPMEN-TS. 199

extent to which the construction of railroads in America
will be carried, no estimate can be formed.

Before leaving this subject we must submit a few addi-
tional particulars. The average rate of speed, with the
jDassenger-trains, in America, is thirty miles per hour, and.
the number of cars in each train varies from five to fifteen ;
while the freight-trains frequently number not less than
one hundred cars. The locomotives are far more powerful
and much larger than those on English roads, and wood is
the common fuel. In front of the engine is generally
placed a massive iron grating, called a " cow-catcher," in-
tended to throw off any animal that may be upon the
track ; and in winter they are supplied with immense
plows for the purpose of cutting through the banks of
snow. They are supplied with bells as well as steam-
whistles, to be sounded when starting, or used to give
note of coming danger. They are generally managed by
three men, one engineer and his assistant, and one fire-
man. The passenger-cars are large, and have from eight
to sixteen wheels ; some of them plain and open to all,
and others, called palace cars, are very elegantly fitted up,
and occupied only by those persons who are willing to pay
an extra fare. On all the trains are also to be found such
conveniences as "sleeping" and "smoking cars." The
men who manage the trains while running, are the " con-
ductors," who collect the tickets ; at the end of each car is
stationed a brakeman, who helps to regulate the speed;
there are also baggage-men ; while boys with books or
papers, or fruit, are permitted to pass through the trains ;
and upon those which carry the United States mail, there
is always an officer of the General Post-Office Department.

200 LIFE AND EESOURCES IK AMERICA.

Tickets are purchased before entering the cars, and for
every piece of baggage a metal check is given, so that a
man may travel a thousand miles or more without casting
a thought upon his baggage. The rails are made of iron
and steel, and single or double tracks are in vogue ac-
cording to the necessities of the route ; and the longest
continuous line of railway in America, running from ISTew
York City to San Francisco, is 3,200 miles.

As the primary object of commerce is to accumulate
money, it is proper that we should conclude this paper
with a general survey of the finances of the United State?,
and of the people to whom their management is intrusted.
At the close of the last fiscal year, the debt of the United
States amounted to $2,480,672,427; the reduction, since
1866, when it reached the highest amount, having been
$292,563,746. The total receipts of the Government were
$566,935,818, while the expenditures amounted to $417,-
433,346, leaving a balance in the Treasury of $149,502,472.
The money spent for the civil service was $19,031,283;
foreign intercourse, $1,490,776 ; military establishment,
$57,655,675; naval establishment, $21,780,229 ; collecting
customs revenue, $6,237,137 ; assessing and collecting in-
ternal revenue, $7,234,531 ; light-house establishment,
$2,588,300; mint establishment, $1,067,097; Indians,
$3,407,938 ; and pensions, $28,340,202 ; while the balance
was devoted to miscellaneous expenditures. Turning from
the operations of the national Treasury to the banking insti-
tutions, we find the following information : the national
banks, which are conducted by private enterprise, but made
perfectly secure by the General Government, number 1,627,
and have a capital of $436,478,311 ; the chartered banks,

COMMEECIAL LIFE AKD DEVELOPMEinTS.

201

wbich are disconnected from the Government, number 1,882,
and have a capital of $503,578,000 ; the private bankers re-
present about $400,000,000 of capital ; and the savings banks
are estimated to hold about $195,000,000. The system
upon which all these institutions is managed is quite uni-
form—each having a president and cashier, a board of
directors, and as many clerks as may be required. Taken
in the aggregate, the bankers of America are as upright
and intelligent as any in existence; but no class, from
presidents down to common clerks, are so liable to go
astray, and therefore it is that the papers have occasion-
ally to chronicle acts of dishonesty among banking men.
On the score of success, it is also worth mentioning that
the private bankers have at all times led the way in the
more important financial negotiations between the United
States and foreign countries; and the late rebellion, as
well as the preceding war with Mexico, were both greatly
indebted to the skill of two men, whose names as bankers
have passed into history, viz. : William W. Corcoran and
Jay Cooke. Of the various financial institutions, perhaps
the most useful and truly American in its character is that
known as the savings bank, the primary object of which is
to keep in safety the savings of the poorer classes, for the
use of which the bank pays a regular interest. Other
banks make it their business to lend money for commercial
purposes, but not so with the savings banks, which have
more to do with real estate in making use of their funds.
With regard to the circulating medium of the United
States, we may remark that it is divided into paper money
and specie. The former, which is also called currency, is
all issued indirectly from the ISTational Treasury, in de-

202 LIFE AKD RESOUKCES Iiq" AMEEICA.

uominations'ranging from ten cents to $1,000, and $356,-
000,000 being a legal tender, while all the issues under one
dollar are called fractional currency. The specie of the
country is coined at a national mint, located in Philadel-
phia, and of course under the direction of the Treasury,
and is composed of nickel, copper, silver, and gold ; the
copper forming one and two cent pieces ; the silver, five,
ten, twenty-five, and fifty cent pieces ; and the gold, one,
three, five, ten, twenty, and fifty dollar pieces ; to all of
which may be added what is called gold and silver bullion.
There are also branch mints in operation at San Francisco,
Denver, Charlotte, Carson City, and an assay oftice in New
York. While it is true, that in all parts of the world
money is considered a great power, there is probably no
country where the people are so univerally imbued with
the love of gain, or place so high an estimate on the pos-
session of wealth, as is the case in the United States of
America.

LIFE AMOEG THE MEOHAE'IOS.

In no way, perhaps, can the magnitude of the mechan-
ical and artisan interests of America be better realized than
by walking through the spacious apartments of the Patent
Office in Washington, where are to be found over one hun-
dred thousand models of American skill and enterprise.
Of these, about five thousand have been deposited within
the last three years. It might also be mentioned that -the
cost of supporting the Patent Office and publishing its
records, down to the present time, has been twelve mil-
lions of dollars ; that fifty thousand applications for patents
have been rejected ; and that no inventions, which are
inoperative, frivolous, or mischievous can ever be protected
by the Government.

Sixty years ago, the manufactures of the country were
valued at $200,000,000; to-day, they are estimated at
$3,000,000,000 ; while the people who are engaged in this
enormous business are also counted by millions. Then-
character is varied and interesting. All labor is respected,
but this is especially true of skilled labor. The American
mechanics are partial to the higher grades of work, and
this has a tendency to elevate them in society. They are
ambitious to succeed, but often fail because of their at-
tempting too much. As employers, they are faithful and
punctual, and they who work as subordinates seldom
have cause to complain. As fellow-laborers, they are not

204 LIFE AJTD RESOUECES I^N" AMERICA.

always considerate, but oiFences in that direction grow out
of individual dispositions. Their minds are not given to
abstract thought, but they are fond of industrial organiza-
tions. In dealing with men and things, and in surmount-
ing obstacles, they are wonderfully ingenious ; and perhaj^s
their chief intellectual distinction is that of inventors. To
■use the language of another, their moral qualities are not
striking, but generally sound. They are a good-natured
people, and treat strangers with kindness. Fairness and
honesty prevail among them. Discij^line is weak. They
respect their institutions, and deserve to be called a law-
abiding people. Their homes are generally well ordered,
and their domestic virtues are above the average among
European nations. They are fond of amusements, but
perhaps too willing to break through the rules of a wise
restraint. DiiFerent sections and pursuits, however, bring
about different results; and what is true of one neighbor-
hood is not always true of another ; and of course the in-
habitants of the newly- settled regions are not generally
as far advanced in culture as those located in the older
cities and. towns. A single brick or block of stone may
give us a faint idea of the house to be built of that mate-
rial ; and in like manner, we may partially become ac-
quainted with the manufacturing population by consider-
ing a few of its leading classes, who come under the head
of mechanics or artisans.

And, first, as to the very extensive number of persons
engaged in the production of flour and meal — the millers
of the country. They are to be found in every part, and
the business of transforming the various cereals into flour
is carried on by steam-mills, as well as those propelled by

LIFE AMOXG THE MECHANICS. 205

■water and wind power. The mills w^hich are run by Avater
power are the most numerous, and it is only in a few level
districts that the old-fashioned windmill is in vogue.
Many of the mills in question are of limited capacity, and
only intended to grind the grain which is sent to them
from the immediate vicinity; but in various parts of the
country are located very extensive establishments^ which
send their brands of flour to various quarters of the globe.
In these larger mills, which run both day and night, and
employ two sets of hands, they grind and turn out from
three hundred to one thousand barrels of flour in each
twenty-four hours. Wheat is always a cash article; and to
carry on the business, a large capital is required. Besides
the regular millers and their immediate assistants, these
establishments give employment to large numbers of
coopers, who manufacture the barrels that are used; but
within the past year, complaints have been made against
these millers that they were in the habit of using old bar-
rels, which had been used for other purposes. This kind
of dishonesty, however, is not common, and will undoubt-
edly be remedied. The weight of a barrel of flour is
always one hundred and ninety-six j^ounds, and it is uni-
versally inspected by a public officer before shipment from
the place of its manufacture; so that the several classes
through w^hose hands each barrel of flour is obliged to
pass are the proprietors, the millers and their assistants,
the coopers, the inspectors, and Anally the book-keeping
and shipping clerks. In the larger mills, moreover, regu-
lar millwrights are also pei-manently employed.

Excepting agriculture, there is no branch of American
industry which gives employment to so many people as

206 LIFE Ais'D EESOURCES IIT AMERICA.

that of boot and shoe maDufacturing. The New England
States take the lead in this business, and Massachusetts is
in advance of all the other individual States, the largest
single establishment in that State giving employment to
fourteen hundred persons, and paying out, in the way of
wages, nearly one hundred thousand dollars per annum.
And it is reported of one town that it turned out, in one
year, boots and shoes enough to amount to five millions of
dollars. The States of New York and Pennsylvania come
next to iSTew England, and it is estimated that the product
of the whole United States is very much more than one
hundred millions of dollars per annum ; while the raw
material in the way of leather has reached a similar
amount. The finer qualities of boots and shoes are usually
made in the cities, and chiefly by Germans, and the more
ordinary varieties in the country-towns and villages. In
some of these, almost every house has attached to it a
shop for making shoes, and all the members of the family,
when not engaged in household aflairs, or in cultivating a
garden, take part in the manufacture. Within the last
year, quite a colony of Chinese shoemakers have found
employment in New England, and every inducement is
given to encourage their coming in greater numbers.
Where the sewing-machine is employed, large numbers of
shoes are turned out by some families, which are paid for
on being delivered to the local dealers, who ship them to
the wholesale merchants in the cities. A large proportion
of the shoes made are fastened on the bottom by wooden
pegs, thereby creating peg factories, in many of which shoe-
lasts are made, the combined business amounting to many
hundred thousand dollars. About one-third of the people

LIFE AMOl^G THE MECHA:jnCS. 207

engaged in making shoes are women, and it is said that
the aggregate amount now paid to the shoemakers as wages
is not far from fifty millions of dollars. With regard to
the leather used in this enormous business, it is chiefly
manufactured in the country, and its annual production
reaches very nearly one hundred millions of dollars.

The manufacture of clothing for men, boys, women, and
children has become a business, of late years, of great mag-
nitude. It is confined chiefly to the large cities, and gives
direct employment to nearly one hundred and fifty thousand
hands, the largest proportion of whom are women. Accord-
ing to the latest published returns of the Census Office,
they received in one year nearly twenty millions of dollars
in wages, and produced merchandise which sold for about
ninety millions of dollars. The general distribution of
wealth in America enables the people of all classes to be
comfortably and respectably attired, and it is seldom that
one class is compelled to wear the cast-off clothing of
another class. Out of this fact has grown the vast demand
for ready-made clothing of moderate cost, which has devel-
oped into an immense and gi'owing trade, giving employ-
ment to multitudes of women in the larger cities, who
would otherwise find it difficult to support themselves in
comfort. The cutters of common clothing are principally
Americans, while the Germans and Irish are chiefly em-
ployed in the other branches of the business. The wages,
both for men and women, are larger than those paid in
Europe. The American women are noted for their fond-
ness for dress, and carry the custom of clothing their chil-
dren to a preposterous extent ; and hence the demand for
fancy articles of dress is probably greater than in any other

208 LIFE AXD EESOUECES 11^ AMERICA.

civilized country on the globe. And while that wonderful
invention called the sewing-machine has not only greatly
increased the means of producing, it has at the same time
created an increased demand for every variety of clothing.
Of the class of artisans who are engaged in the manu-
facture of machines, the number is not far from fifty thou-
sand. The machines made by them are well-nigh countless
in numbers and variety, ranging from steam-engines and loco-
motives down to printing-presses and sewing-machines. There
is no country in the w^orld where hydraulic machinery or
waterraiils are so abundant as in America, and its water pow-
er is practically unlimited. Taken as a whole, the machin-
ists of the country are noted for their superior intelligence,
and turn their attention more to what is useful than to
what is ornamental. Among the articles which they pro-
duce of special importance may be mentioned clocks and
watches, firearms, cabinet furnitui«e, cutlery, and all sorts
of implements and tools, musical instruments, including
organs and piano-fortes, carriages, soap and candles, bricks,
tobacco in all shapes, w4th articles of unnumbered varie-
ties made of iron, copper, brass, glass, and wood. Within
the bounds of the Republic may be found the raw material for
almost every branch of manufacturing industry. The intel-
lectual po^^^r and skill of the American mechanic may be
partly appreciated by the fact that the manufactories of
the country, w^hen last ofificially published, numbered one
hundred and forty-one thousand, besides the machine-shops
of great value and capacity, yielding products to the value
of two thousand millions of dollars. These immense
results, which include the products of the cotton and w^ool
manufactories, whilst measurably affected by the wealth of

LIFE AMOXG THE MECHAIn'ICS. 209

the soil and its successful cultivation, are yet traceable
to the artisan skill, energies, and industry of tlie American
people. It has been said that the manufacturing and
mechanical capacities of the N'orthern States of America
were the primary cause of their success in the late rebel-
lion, and that a more striking illustration of the power and
value of such resources is not to be found in history. In
looking over the official lists, we find that the mechanics
and artisans of the United States might be arranged in
classes which number about one hundred, and of course, in
a paper like the present, it is impossible to describe them
with minuteness.

But let us now take a glance at the subject of compensa-
tion. Common laborers in America earn from one to two
dollars per day, without board. The wages for skilled
labor are considerably higher, but they cannot be precisely
specified, because the workmen make their own contracts
with their employers, the prices being regulated by ability,
the season, and the nature of the business. By way of
illustration, however, we append the following selection, as
about the rate of full monthly wages in vogue at the pres-
ent time, viz. : bakers, fourteen dollars ; blacksmiths, ninety
dollars; bricklayers, one hundred and twelve dollars;
book-binders, eighteen dollars ; butchers, tv/enty dollars ;
cabinet-makers, ninety dollars; carpenters, one hundred
and twelve dollars; cigar-makers, sixty dollars; confec-
tioners, forty dollars ; coopers, one hundred dollars ;
engineers, ninety-two dollars ; machinists, ninety-two dol-
lars; masons, one hundred and twelve dollars; millers,
ninety-two dollars ; painters, sixty dollars ; printers, ninety-
two dollars; harness and saddle makers, sixty dollars;

210 Ll'E'E AKD KESOURCES m AMEEICA.

shoemakers, sixty dollars; tailors, eighty dollars; stone-
cutters, one hundred and twelve dollars; watchmakers,
eighty dollars ; wheelwrights, eighty-four dollars ; wagon-
makers, ninety-two dollars ; spinners and weavers, forty-
eight dollars; and wood-carvers, eighty dollars. The
above are only about one-fourth of the trades followed in
America, but they are among the most important. Gener-
ally speaking, the lowest wages are paid in the cities along
the Atlantic seaboard, and they increase as the immigrant
passes westward, reaching their highest point on the
Pacific.

We come now to speak of some of the incidental circum-
stances connected with that portion of the laboring popu-
lation devoted to mechanical employments. The hours for
beginning and ending a day's work vary according to the
seasons of the year. Hitherto, it has been customary to
labor ten hours, but this has generally been regulated by
agreements between the employer and his hired men.
Within the last two years, however, this business has been
mixed up with politics, and Congress has been induced to
pass a law limiting a day's labor to eight hours so far as the
public service is concerned. Whether these regulations
have resulted to the advantage of the employed or the
employer is not yet settled. It is alleged that they have
tended to make discord in the more important establish-
ments, causing the employers to low^er the wages paid, and
at the same time making the employed restless and more
disposed than formerly to demand unreasonable terms.
Looking at the mechanics of the United States in the aggre-
gate, it may safely be said that they live in comfortable
houses, have the best of plain food, husband their money

LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 211

with care, and are less addicted to intemperance than are
certain classes who think themselves their superiors. They
are not so driven in their employments that they cannot
enjoy a suitable amount of recreation, and their amusements
or entertainments differ according to their nationalities.
If the Germans have their gardens, where they congregate
at stated times to play games and drink beer ; the Irish
have their festivals in honor of their patron-saints, as well
as their wakes or hilarious funerals ; while the native-born
inhabitants amuse themselves with pastimes peculiarly
American, including picnics, steamboat excursions, and
athletic games— but seldom omitting to read the daily pa-
pers, or have something to do with politics. While it is
true that there may here and there be found artisans who
have a hard struggle to get along comfortably, yet a large
proportion who are industrious and frugal succeed in lay-
ing up money and surrounding themselves with the elegan-
cies of life. Indeed, in many parts of the country very
marked changes are going on among the people, and
successful mechanics are pushing aside the older and more
aristocratic families, and giving tone to society. If called
upon to say from what sphere the largest number of mod-
erately wealthy men have arisen, our observation would
incline us to answer, the mechanical and artisan classes.
There are men in all the larger cities, who were once
engaged in the most ordinary employments, but who have
amassed fortunes that are truly regal, and who are using
their wealth in helping the poor, building hospitals, and
founding institutions of learning, thereby proving that all
the wisdom and benevolence are not possessed alone by the
cultivated and intellectual classes.

212 LIFE AND EESOUECES IN AMERICA.

By way of illustrating the wonderful changes that have
taken place in mechanical employment, through the inven-
tions of machinery, we may direct attention to the simple
affair called a button. The first manufacturer, in America,
of these useful articles, was one Samuel Williston. He
was a country merchant, and while selling buttons made
of wood, he conceived the idea of covering them with cloth,
and he invented a machine for that purpose, which was
the first one invented in the United States. From this
humble beginning sprang up a factory, until this man was
found to be making one-half of the buttons made in the
whole world. Several factories which he established are
coining wealth for their proprietors, and are known to the
dealers in all climes. This man Williston is now nearly
eighty years of age, and is worth about five millions of
dollars ; he is also a very liberal man, and has endowed
several institutions of learning with more than a million of
dollars, one of them being Amherst College, where several
Japanese students are at the present time receiving their
education.

The inventive talent of the Americans is universally
recognized, and its special power is derived from the
existing facilities for education. Among these, the most
important, undoubtedly, are those afforded by the great
mechanical exhibitions, which take place in some of the
leading cities every year. One of them, which occurs in
New York, has come to be considered as a national institu-
tion. The total number of laboring men, women, and
children in the United States has been estimated at
thirteen (13,000,000) millions; and it is said that the
Bteam machinery of the country is equal to two millions

LIFE AMONG THE MECHANICS. 213

2,000,000 of horse-power, or twenty-eight millions (28,000,
000) of grown men; so that while one-third of this work
is done by laboring men, two-thirds are performed by
laboring machines. According to the opinion of a leading
British statesman, there are few countries in which the
workingman is held in such repute as in the United States.
The laboring classes may be said to embrace the entire
American nation. American artisans prefer those occupa-
tions in which the exercise of brain is in greater demand
than that of the elbow, and their chief ambition is to attain
the positions of master-workmen. Being educated, they
perform their duty with less supervision than is required
when dependence is to be placed upon uneducated hands.
It rarely happens that a workman who possesses superior
skill in his craft is disqualified to take the responsible posi-
tion of superintendent by the want of education and
general knowledge. The true mechanic toils at his trade
mider the conviction that manual labor, to be effective,
must adapt itself almost wholly to the direction of science ;
and that under that direction, unskilled labor necessarily
becomes skilled, and limited trusts enlarge into influential
responsibility.

As already intimated in this paper, the records of the
Patent Office bear witness to the effects of general educa-
tion in the development of mechanical ingenuity in the
American people. Nowhere in the world, it has been
justly said, does it exist to the same extent ; and yet, in
some of the most important departments of manufacture,
the people are now nearly stationary, while in others they
make but little progress. A few years ago, Germany sent
to Massachusetts for machinery to manufacture woolen

214 LIFE AiTD KESOUKCES liT AMERICA.

cloth ; but to-day there is scarcely any broadcloth made in
any of the United States. Many of the most important
improvements in the cotton manufacture are of American
origin ; and yet the amount of cotton-wool now consumed
hardly exceeds that which was required eight years ago.
The same is true of various other articles of manufactui'e.
In the last ten years the population, has increased about
nine millions; and yet the number of persons engaged in
many of the manufacturing establishments is not now
greater than it was then. The whole increase, therefore, is
forced into agriculture and trade; and a new class of men,
called "middle-men" — who neither produce, nor sell at
their own risk — has sprung into existence, whose influence
upon the prosperity of the country is thought to be of
doubtful character.

EELIGIOUS LIFE AXD l^sSTl-
TUTIOXS.

UxDER this head we propose to submit a general account
of religion in the United States.

There is no state religion, and the Government under-
takes only to maintain order and administer justice to all,
and they are entirely free to choose any kind of religion,
save those which are contrary to its civil laws. Men as-
sociate themselves, according to their preferences, under
separate organizations called churches. They all believe
in one eternal and incomprehensible Deity, and in the im-
m.ortality of the soul. All these churches have a book
called the Bible. This book is believed to be a revelation
from the Deity, or God, and is divided into the Old and
New Testaments, the former being called the Hebrew
Scriptures, and the latter the Greek Scriptures. They claim
that the Old Testament contains the most ancient writings
known, and gives a history of the world and of man
from the creation, and also prophesies the coming of Christ
at a given time, which is fulfilled in the Xew Testament,
wherein there is a history of the birth and ministry, death
and resurrection of Christ, contained in its principal portion
called the gospel, the meaning of which word is " good
news," and is applied to the story of Christ. Christ is be-
lieved to have been " God manifest in the flesh," and all
who believe in Him are called Christians.

216 LIFE AKD EESOUECES IIS" AMERICA.

As specimens of each of these parts of the Bible, we quote
here some of its leading features. From the Old, the
"Decalogue," containing the Ten Commandments or pre-
cepts, written on two tables of stone, claimed to have been
delivered by God to an inspired man called Moses, at
Mount Sinai, in Asia ; they will be found in the following
words :

*' And God spake all these words, saying, I am the Lord
thy God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt,
out of the house of bondage. (1) Thou shalt have no
other gods but me. (2) Thou shalt not make unto thee
any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in
the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or that is in the
water under the earth ; thou shalt not bow down thyself
to them nor worship them ; for I the Lord thy God am a
jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the
children unto the third and fourth generation of them that
hate me, and showing mercy unto them that love me and
keep my commandments.

(3) " Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God
in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh
His name in vain. Remember the Sabbath day to keep it
holy. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work; but
the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God ; in it
thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy
daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy
cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates ;

(4) '^ For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth,
the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day :
wherefore the Lord blessed the seventh day and hallowed
it.

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 217

(5) ''Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days
may be long npon the land which the Lord thy God
mveth thee.

(6) "Thou shalt not kill.

(7) "Thou shalt not commit adultery.

(8) "Thou shalt not steal.

(9) '-Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy
neighbor.

(10) "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou
shalt not covet thy neighbor's Avife, nor his ma,n-servant,
nor his maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything
that is thy neighbor's."

From the Xew Testament we quote a part of Christ's
Sermon on the Mount, as follows :

" Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom
of heaven.

" Blessed are they that mourn ; for they sliall be com-
forted.

" Blessed are the meek ; for they shall inherit the earth.

" Blessed are the merciful ; for they shall obtain mercy.

''Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall see God.

" Blessed are the peace-makers ; for they shall be called
the children of God.

" Blessed are tliey which are persecuted for righteousness'
sake ; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

" Blessed are ye when men shall revile and persecute you,
and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for
my sake."

After thus declaring who are blessed, he goes on to say
who are the salt of the earth, the light of the world; and
that he came to fulfill the law ; what it is to kill, commit

10

218 LIFE A^-D KESOUECES IX AMERICA

adultery, and to swear. He exhorts man to suffer wrong ;
to love even his enemies ; to labor after perfectness ; to
give alms ; teaches him how to pray, how to forgive, how
to fast, where to lay np treasures, how to serve God and
not to serve mammon, not to be careful for worldly things,
to seek God's kingdom. He reproves rash judgment, for-
bids to cast holy things to dogs. He warns them to be-
ware of false prophets ; to be doers of the word, and to be
like houses built upon a rock. He then teaches the fol-
lowing prayer :

" Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done in earth as it is in
heaven ; give ns this day our daily bread ; and forgive us
our debts, as we forgive our debtors, and lead us not into
temptation, but deliver us from evil, for thine is the king-
dom, and the power, and the glory, forever. Amen."

In another place he says: "Thou shalt love the Lord
thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with
all thy mind. This is the lirst and great commandment,
and the second is like unto it : Thou shalt love thy neighbor
as thyself On these two commandments hang all the law
and the prophets."

And still in another part of the Gospel we find this asser-
tion : " Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord,
shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that docth
the will of my Father which is in heaven."

In view of the fact that Christ was crucified on a cross^,
and the same lias ever been considered a symbol of suffer-
ing, we quote the following mandate: ''And when he had
called the people unto him with his disciples, also, he said
unto them : Whosoever will come after me, let him deny

RELIGIOUS LIFE AND IXSTITUTIOXS. 219

himself, and take up his cross, and follow me. For whoso-
ever will save his life, shall lose it; but whosoever shall
lose his life, for my sake, and the gospel's, the same shall
save it. For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain
the whole Avorld and lose his own soul ? or what shall a
man give in exchange for his soul ? Whosoever, therefore,
shall be ashamed of me and of my words in this adulterous
and sinful generation, of him also shall the Son of man be
ashamed, when he cometh in the glory of his Father with
the holy angels."

What is called the "golden rule" is contained in the fol-
lowing words : " Therefore all things whatsoever ye would
that men should do to you, do ye even so to them : for this
is the law and the prophets."

These specimens will show how the Christian religion ac-
cords with the Bible.

Both the Old and 'New Testaments contain, as most of
such books do, many wonderful and strange stories, hard to
be comprehended. The present writer deems it best not to
allude here to any of them, as they appear to him to be of
no grave importance, in regard to their real religious essence.
The increasing influence of the Bible is marvellously great,
penetrating everywhere. It carries with it a tremendous
power of freedom and justice, guided by a combined force
of Avisdom and goodness.

Education, industry, and benevolence are also other strong
agents of the Bible influence. The believers in it have
schools, and preaching, and missionary enterprises. For the
care and help of all the unfortunate they have institutions.
These are of three general kinds :

First. Schools for the masses, supported by the State,

220 LIFE AXD RESOUECES li^- AMERICA.

though this does not exclude schools supported by those
directly partaking of the beuefit.

Second. Institutions of mercy, asylums for the blind, the
deaf and dumb, and the insane. These, because of the
great expense attending them, are general, and are supported
by the State ; while hospitals and infirmaries and lying-in
establishments are denominational or belong to churches,
and are supported by charitable contributions.

Tliird. Penal institutions, which include houses of correc-
tion for young persons, jails, and penitentiaries — all these
being conducted more upon the principle of reforming the
evil-doers than upon the principle of punishing them.

Having now given a general outline of the system of re-
ligion, we will give a few particulars connected with the sep-
arate organizations.

There are three great divisions of the Christian Church
throughout the world, — Protestant, Roman Catholic, and
Greek Church, — the latter being organized in the United
States only to a limited extent.

The name Protestant was first given in Germany to those
who, under the leadership of Martin Luther, an Augustine
monk, protested against a decree of the Emperor Charles
V. to support the doctrines of Rome. The Pope, Leo X.,
had granted indulgences for sins, on the payment of certain
sums of money into the church treasury, and this was
deemed wrong by Luther, who soon founded a religion in
opposition to such teacliings, and the name Protestant now
comprehends chiefly all those Christians who are opposed
to the Roman Catholic Church.

Numerous denominations or sects have since sprung up
among the Protestants, and they may be named as follows:

RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTION'S. 221

Methodists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists,
Episcopalians, Lutherans, Moravians^ Quakers, Dutch Re-
formed Churcli, Universalists, Unitarians, and a few others.
The sacred volume, or Bible, in which all these sects believe,
although some of them interpret it differently from others,
is chiefly printed and circulated by special Bible Societies,
which, in connection with other Societies established in
Europe, have issued the book, or parts of it, in one hun-
dred and sixt3"-five different languages, and circulated it to
the extent of one hundred and one millions of copies during
the present century. With regard to the leading principles
just mentioned the great multitude of Protestants are
agreed ; but the sects, in their modes of worship, are some-
what different from each other, and must be mentioned
separately. Of these, the most extensive class are the
Methodists.

This sect was founded in England, and is known by the
names of Methodist Episcopal and Methodist Connection.
It receives its name Methodist from the fact that its mem-
bers profess to be guided in their living by the methods laid
down in the Bible, and the name of Episcopal marks that
branch whose power is vested in bishops. They have
arranged their doctrines of belief into twenty-five articles;
they recognize the two great sacraments of BajDtism and
the Lord's Supper, in common with all Protestants. They
are ruled by what is termed a Conference, and their princi-
pal officers are called bishops, preachers, deacons, and
elders. Their churches are plain, and usually built with-
out steeples or towers. Many of the preachers spend their
time in travelling from one part of the country to another
as missionaries.

222 LIFE AKD RESOUKGES IN AMERICA.

They own an extensive book establishment, and annually
give large suras of money for tlie support of missionaries in
various parts of the world. In 1870, their preachers mim-
bered 19,170; regular members, 2,623,201; colleges, 23;
academies and seminaries of learning, 85 ; while the total
amount of their property was about $7,000,000.

Presbyterians are governed by presbyteries^ or associa-
tions of ministers and ruling elders; several adjoining
presbyteries meet under the name of Synod^ and their
General Assembly, which is tlieir highest tribanal, is com-
posed of delegates from each presbytery ; this body meets
annually, and attends to the interests of their church
throughout the country. Although knov/n in various
parts of Europe, this sect was introduced into America
from Scotland, where it is the Established Church. The
doctrines which they profess are purely evangelical on all
points. They give tlie name of bishop to each minister,
and hold them equal in power; the meaning of the word
bishop being overseer. In 1870, the total number of min-
isters was 4,877 ; the churches, 5,342 ; and the members or
communicants, 524,945. The amount contributed and ex-
pended for church and missionary operations was about
$8,000,000. One of their customs is to have protracted
meetings^ wdiich continue for several days at a time, and
often terminate in what are called revivals of religion,
usually bringing many new members into their congrega-
tions.

Closely allied to the above is tlie sect called Congrega-
tionalists. It is the same as that known in England as the
Independents, and they have been identified with America
ever since 1620, when the Pilgrims first landed on the

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 223

shores of 'New England. The essential peculiarity of this
church is, that it maintains the independence of each con-
gregation. It is associated with Presbyterians in mission-
ary and publishing enterprises; its colleges are numerous,
and its chief strength lies within the New England States ;
its ministers number 3,043 ; churches, 2,341 ; its members,
306,518; and in the last forty years it has expended for
religious purposes nearly $6,000,000.

Next to the Methodists, in point of numbers, are the
Baptists. They differ from all other sects in regard to the
rite of Baptism ; they not only exclude infants from the
rite, but in case of all adults, insist upon immersion, or
subjecting the entire body to the influence of water; hence
they have in most of their churches a large tank or basin,
built behind their pulpits, in which the ceremony is per-
formed ; but in some parts of the country it is quite com-
mon to perform the rite in rivers or natural pools of water,
and at such times the congregated spectators help to make
the scene impressive : the officiating pastor leads the per-
son to be baptized into the water, and dips the head under,
while pronouncing the necessary form of words. There is
a loose dress worn on the occasion by the pastor and the
person to be baptized. They do not use the title of bishoj),
and they recognize no officials higher than pastors and
deacons. One branch of this sect call themselves Close-
Communion Baptists, and will not allow members of other
denominations to commune with them ; another branch are
called Seventh-Day Baptists, because they consider Satur-
day,-^or the seventh day of the week, — the true Sabbath.
Still another branch are called Free-Will Baptists, because
of their more liberal opinions. According to the latest

224 LIFE AXD EESOUECES IX AMERICA.

records the members of this church mimber 1,221,349;
the churches, 15,143; and mmisters, 8,784. They publish
thirty-tive periodicals; and support twenty-five colleges
and fourteen seminaries of learning.

We now come to the Protestant Episcopal Church. It
consists of thirty-nine confederated dioceses under the care
of bishops, to whom their priests and deacons are sub-
ordinate. Each bishop has charge of a diocese or circuit,
which is the extent of his jurisdiction and generally com-
prises one State. These representative bishops meet in a
General Convention, composed of the "House of Bishops,"
consisting of all the diocesan and missionary bishops, and
of the " House of Clerical and Lay Deputies," consisting
of four laymen from each diocese. This convention meets
triennially. Each diocese has its Annual Convention, com-
posed of its bishop and assistant bishop, if there be one,
and the priests, deacons, and laity from each congregation ;
and all disputed questions are referred to the House of
Bishops. This sect has a w^ritteu form of worship, called
a Liturgy, which is embodied in a book called the " Common
Prayer ;" it is founded upon the one used by the Church
of England, with such alterations as were deemed expedi-
ent upon its adoption in the United States. There have
been several dissensions in this church growing out of the
use of this book, and these have caused the divisi(^n of the
sect into High and Low Church. They are the only Prot-
estants, excepting the Dutch Reformed, who wear robes
or gowns while performing their priestly office. This
gown is of black silk, fitting loosely, and is worn while
preaching and at funerals. A white gown is used for all
other services, v/hich is made of white muslin; bish-

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD INSTITUTIONS. 225

ops wear only the Avhite gown. They have 52 bishops,
and their i)riests and deacons number 2,786; their
parishes, 2j605 ; and members or communicants about
220,000.

The denomination known as Lutherans cLaims to be
more especially Protestant than any other, and takes its
name from Martin Luther, although that celebrated reform-
er was opposed to its use in that connection. Another
name for this church is that of the United Evangelical
Church. They believe in the actual salvation of infants,
dying unbaptized.

Li other respects the Lutherans substantially agree with
all the denominations hitherto mentioned. It has long
been an influential body in America; its ministers number
1,933; its churches, 3,417; and members, 387,746. Close-
ly allied to the sects already mentioned are those known
as the Dutch Reformed and the Moravians. The first of
these has its seat of power in New York; its ministers
number 974, and its members, 175,091. The Moravians,
though not numerous, have also been noted for their devo-
tion to missionary labor, especially in the northern parts of
North America.

All the denominations described above are commonly
styled as Orthodox or Evangelical. The following are
those which in some degree are in opposition to the others
in both faith and principle. They are regarded very liberal
and broad in their views.

The sect known as Universalists claim that their doc
trines were preached in the United States, as far back as
one hundred years ago. They reject the doctrine of the
Trinity, giving to Christ the second place, and making him

10*

226 LIFE AND RESOURCES IX AMERICA.

subordinate to the Father ; and Avhile declaring that God
is infinite, they believe in the final destruction of evil and
the restoration of all human souls through Jesus Christ.
They do not believe that any of the human race will be final-
ly lost. Their government is representative and ecclesiasti-
cal; and they have 1,279 societies, 998 churches, and 724
preachers ; publish about twenty periodicals, and hold
property to the value of about eight hundred thousand
dollars.

And next come the Unitarians. They oppose the doc-
trine of the Trinity, which is held by the great majority
of Protestants, and believe in the absolute unity of God.
They do not reject the existence of Christ, but believe him
to have been only a man. The manner of their worship is
simple, and each church manages its own afiliirs separately.
This sect originated in the United States in 1825, and is
more popular in Massachusetts than in any other State of
the Union. The number of societies which they support is
334, and they have 396 ministers, a large proportion of
whom are not permanently settled. They support two
Theological Seminaries ; seven or eight periodicals ; and
fifteen charitable institutions. The population connected
with this denomination is variously estimated at from
fifteen to thirty thousand. Within the last few years they
have accepted the co-operation of the Universalists in their
eftorts to do good ; and they have made the following
agreement :

"Reafiirming our allegiance to the Gospel of Jesus
Christ, and to secure the largest anity of the spirit, and the
widest practical co-operation, we invite to our fellowship
all who wish to be followers of Christ."

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 227

Having noAV given a general description of the various
Protestant denominations, it is proper tliat we should be a
little more explicit in regard to the sacraments of tlie
^Evangelicals. They admit as essential to membership only
two sacraments, which are considered of Divine institution.
These are tlie rite of Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, called
the Communion. Baptism is a representation or seal of
the new covenant, and is the appointed ordinance for their
introduction into the church, and is a sign of profession,
whereby the promises of remission of sins and adoption
into the family of Cliristians are said to be visibly sealed by
the Holy Ghost. All the denominations mentioned above,
excej3ting the Baptists, believe in the efficacy of infant
baptism, and that it has an influence on all the periods of
life ; and all administer the rite by sprinkling wdth water
the face of the child or adult believer, and sometimes, as in
the Episcopal Church, making the sign of the cross on the
forehead while the minister pronounces the words, " I
baptize thee in the name of the Father and the Son and
the Holy Ghost," showing by these words that the person
baptized, or the person bringing the child, believes in the
Trinit}" or Triune God, the Father as Creator, the Son as
Redeemer, and the Holy Ghost as Comforter. The water
is used as an emblem of purity, and it is not generally sup-
posed that the outward sign will profit those who live and
die without the inward grace, but is to be an adojDtion into
the family of God, b}^ being consecrated to his service, and
is a safeguard from evil, so far as the remembrance of this
consecration has its influence. Baptism, therefore, is sup-
posed to commemorate the fact that Jesus Christ revealed
God to be the Father, himself the Son, and the Spirit the

228 LIFE AND EESOURCES IK AMEEICA.

Holy Ghost, or three persons in the one Godhead, all of
which are acknowledged by them to exist as a mystery,
understood by God alone.

The Holy Communion, or Sacrament of the Lord's Supper,
commemorates the fact that Jesus Christ lived and died ; and
it derived its institution from the fact that, on the evening be-
fore his death, he had a supper, commonly called the Last
Supper, and he gave bread and wine to his disciples, saying,
" Take and eat this bread in remembrance of me, and as often
as ye drink this cup ye do show forth the Lord's death until
He come." These words are found recorded in their Bible,
and are believed by all Protestants ; so that this Sacrament
is revered by all who believe in Christ's sacrifice on the
cross to atone for the sins of the whole world. The Epis-
copalian and the Methodist form of partaking of the
Lord's Supper is by kneeling around the chancel in front
of the pulpit, while the minister passes before tliem, first
with the bread, which he gives to each one, saying, " The
body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee,
preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Take
and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and
feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving." He
then gives the cup to each one, saying, " The blood of our
Lord Jesus Christ, which was shed for thee, preserve thy
body and soul unto everlasting life. Drink this in remem-
brance that Christ's blood was shed for thee, and be
thankful."

Right here we may pause for a moment to look at a
passage in the 'New Testament, wherein Christ declares
himself to be the bread of life to all believers, and
addressins: himself to the doubting Jews : " Then Jesus

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 220

said niito them, 'Verily, verily I say unto you, except ye
eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye
have no life in you. "Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh
my blood, hath eternal life ; and I will raise him up at the
last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is
drink indeed. He that eateth my flesh, and drinketh my
blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him. As the living Father
hath sent me, and I live by the Father ; so he that eateth
me, even he shall live. This is that bread which came
down from heaven ; not as your fathers did eat manna, and
are dead ; he that eateth of this bread shall live for-
ever.' ''

The Presbyterians partake of the Sacrament sitting
either around a table, which is placed in some churches,
or in the pews of the church ; the bread and wane being
handed to them by the Elders of the church; the minister
at the same time repeating w^ords nearly allied to those used
by Christ at the Last Supper. The Congregationalists and
Baptists use nearly the same forms.

The next rite of importance is that of marriage. It is
considered by all Christians to have been ordained by God,
and therefore it is a holy rite, not to be engaged in with-
out the sanction of the proper authorities, which make the
tie binding and lawful The ceremony, after a license has
been granted, is performed either in the church or at the
home of the bride, always by a clergyman, if one can be
procured, but in some cases of emergency it can be sol-
emnized or performed by a justice of the peace. The
Episcopalians have a written form contained in their
Prayer-Book, and the other denominations use also a set
form of words, although every one in conclusion makes

230 LIFE A:N'D EESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

use of the Bible text : "Those whom God hath joined
together, let no man put asunder/' which was the injunc-
tion used by Christ at the institution of the ordinance.

The burial service for the dead is also a written form
with the Episcopalians and Methodists, and is generally-
performed at the house of the deceased, but members of
the church are frequently buried from the church, where
the body is carried, for the purpose of having the burial
service performed. It is then borne out of the church by
persons selected by the family, called pall-bearers, and fol-
lowed by the relatives and friends to the grave, which has
been i)reviously prepared, and is there committed to the
earth by the clergyman, lowered into the grave by the pall-
bearers, and the earth thrown upon the coffin, and the grave
is then closed.

But there are some other religious classes that must be
mentioned, who are noted for their peculiarities.

The sect called Quakers or Friends was founded in Eng-
land by a man named George Fox, and the recognized head
in the United States was William Penn. The epithet
Quaker was given to them, because they often trembled
under an awful sense of the infinite purity and majesty of
God. While professing to be guided by the Protestant
Bible, they have the following peculiarities : They are very
plain in their manner of dress, and in their church buildings ;
have no special reverence for the Christian Sabbath; speak
in public assemblies only w^hen prompted by the Spirit;
and they allow women to speak at their meetings. They
are to some extent Unitarians in belief, have always been
opposed to slavery, and also to war, and never participate
in military affiiirs ; and, in consequence of a division that

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 231

once took place araono' them, a portion of them follovv^ed
the lead of a man named Elias Hicks, and became known
as Hicksites. The city of Philadelphia was founded by
them, and Pennsylvania and Xew York have been their
principal fields of labor. Of late years, they have increased
ill numbers in the western States of the Union, and the
sect now claims about one hundred and thirty-five thousand
members, while they have four colleges, and quite a number
of large boarding-schools.

The people called Shakers originated in England about
one hundred years ago, but are now confined to^the United
States. " The order was founded by two women named Ann
Lee and Jane Wardley, the former having professed to re-
ceive divine light directly from heaven. They believe that
God is dual, there being an eternal Father and Mother in
the Deity ; and the same of Christ. They are ascetics ; live
in secluded communities; take no part in earthly govern-
ments, and are virtually opposed to the marriage relation.
They look upon idleness as sin, and are noted for their
neatness and plainness of dress. There are twelve societies
or settlements of them in the United States, and they have
not increased in numbers in the last fifty years, their total
number being less than two thousand. They are famous
for their knowledge of gardening, and in their principal
communit}^, called Mount Lebanon, in Xew York, Avhich
they own in common, they carry on an extensive business
in the way of selling seeds and certain articles of domestic
manufacture, often yielding an annual income of fifty thou-
sand dollars. In their religious services they frequently
resort to dancing, and they believe that their members have
the power of healing diseases by means of prayer and ab-
stinence from food.

232 LIFE AJs^D RESOUrvCES lis" AMERICA.

Another class of religionists are called the N"ew Jerusalem
Church, and was originated by Emanuel Swedenborg of
Sweden, whose name it sometimes bears; its doctrines are
founded upon the Bible, but are considered by Protestants
as very symbolical. Its followers in America are not nu-
merous, but generally cultured people. Another sect is
known as Mormon, whose founder was Joseph Smith, and
[vdiose disciples have built up a city in Utah ; they are the
advocates of polygamy, which they practise to a large ex-
tent, and Brigham Young is the name of their present
leader, but who, within a short time, has been prosecuted
by the General Government as an offender against the
criminal laws of the country.

Next come the Millerites or Second Adventists, founded
by one William Miller, who preached that the world was
to be destroyed on a particular day, when his disciples
dressed themselves in white robes and waited for the great
event in open fields; and although the predictions of this
pretended prophet were not fulfilled, the sect still survives
to a small extent. And then there are the Tunkers or
Harmless People, who profess to be animated in their
religion by fraternal love ; the Spiritualists, so called, who
boast that they are infidels and heretics ; the Perfectionists,
who advocate a new and perfect way of society ; the So-
cialists, the Fourierites, the Trappists, v/ho believe in a
"community of goods," and finally the Female Seers, who
claim that women are superior to men, and that some of
their sect have been ordained to be prophetesses and seers.

The Roman Catholic Church comprises that society of
Christians whose members acknowledge the Pope as the
visible head of the church. Its followers claim it to be co-

RELIGIOUS LIFE AND IXSTITUTIOXS. 233

eval with the commencement of the Christian era, although
it does not appear to have been fully organized until the
fourth centui-y. The pope is also called a Sovereign Pontiff,
and the word pontificate is used to denote the reign of a
pope. He resides in Rome, and his power extends over all
his followers, wherever they may exist, and all the churches
of this sect in the world are under his supervision. All
rules for government and discipline emanate from him, and
he is supposed by them to be the present representative of
St. Petei", one of Christ's apostles, from whom the popes
have in a successive line proceeded; thus founding their
belief in Ajyostolical succession. After the pope, the next
in order of rank or power is the archbishop, who presides
over the bishops of the dioceses over which he has juris-
diction; then follow the bishops, priests, deacons, and
sub-deacons, with similar powers to those mentioned in
the EpiscojDal Church.

But that which chiefly distinguishes Roman Catholics
from Protestants, is their belief in the Virgin Mary ds an
intercessor between God and man, and also in the inter-
cession of the saints or the good persons who have died,
and are supposed to be in the enjoyment of heaven. These,
they think, can hear and transmit the prayers of the faith-
ful on earth, to Christ, and that the prayers of the Virgin
Mary are especially efficacious with her son, Jesus Chi-ist.
They believe in the use of images and relics of saints and
the Virgin, and generally wear these and the crucifix, or
image of Christ, about their person, as a supposed safeguard
from evil, and as reminders of their dependence upon these
persons for salvation.

Roman Catholics also believe in tlie prayers of the cliurch

234 LIFE AND KESOURCES IX AMERICA.

for the dead, and what is called High Mass is said in the
church, after death. These prayers are said for the dead,
believing that there is a middle state, called Purgator}^,
between Heaven and Hell, into which persons pass for puri-
fication before entering heaven, and therefore that the
23ra3^ers of the church, and good people, will avail to get
them from the transition state into Heaven. Their chief
reliance for salvation is in the blood of Christ, but they
believe that their good works of prayer, fasting, and alms-
giving are meritorious. They believe in the saving grace
of baptism, and that after the form has been used, the per-
son is regenerate, and delivered from all sin : besides the
use of water, they anoint with oil and use salt, and the rite
is performed somevvhat after the following manner : The
priest blows three times upon the face of the person,
saying, "Depart out of him, O Unclean Spirit, and give
place to the Holy Spirit, the Comforter;" he then makes a
sign of the cross on the forehead and breast, and a grain of
salt is put into the mouth of the person, and he is ad-
monished to keep the soul from the corruption of sin.
Oil is used to anoint the breast and between the
shoulders, and w^ater is then poured upon the head three
times in the form of the cross — saying, " I baptize thee in
the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost ;"
then a white bnen cloth is put upon the head, and a lighted
candle is placed in the hand, the priest saying, " Keep the
light of faith ever burning by the oil of good works." He
finally pronounces the blessing: ''Go in peace; the Lord
be with thee."

They believe in the sacraments of confirmation, marriage,
penance, extreme unction, and holy orders, but that of the

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 235

LorcVs Supper, or Eucharij>t, as they call it, and Baptism,
are the only ones held in common with Protestants, and
we will only give these to sliow how they diiFer from that
body of Christians. They believe in the Real Presence
of the body and blood of Christ in the Lord's Supper ; or
that the bread and wine are changed by the consecration
of the priest into the real body and blood of Christ ; tliis
they term Transubstantiation, or the change of the sub-
stance from bread and wine into flesh and blood. In per-
forming tliis sacrament the priest blesses the bread, or wafer,
as they call it, and then the people go up to the rail before
the altar and kneel down, holding a towel, or white cloth,
before their breasts, so that if a particle of the bread
should fall it may be received into the towel and not fall
to the ground. Then the priest distributes it to them,
making the sign of the cross with the consecrated bread
upon each one, saying, "The body of our Lord Jesus
Christ preserve thy soul unto everlasting life." They do
not give the cup to the people, but the priest takes all the
wine, believing that after consecration, the whole body
and blood and divinity is substatitially contained in the
wafer or in the wine, and that it is not necessary to give both,
and the bread is distributed instead of the wine, as there
is danger of spilling the blood of Christ if all receive the
cup.

Their church service is called the mass, and it is in the
form of a liturgy or manual. It is read in Latin, that be-
ing the original language in which it was written, and the
translation accompanies each part, and is thus compre-
hended by those who can read, while the ignorant accept
the form and hear it in a devout manner, believing in the

236 LIFE AXD RESOUECES IJsT AMERICA.

power of the priest to present it to God for them, although
they may not understand tlie words. Their faith in tlie
priesthood is extreme, and they have frequent access to
them for spiritual advice ; the special guide of each indi-
vidual is the priest who presides over the congregation
of wl>i(;li he is a member, and according to his dictation
are performed outward acts of contrition, satisfaction, and
confession, called penances, by which those sins into which
they may have fallen after baptism can be remitted ; some
of these penances are very severe, sometimes requiring
much bodily suifering and great sacrifices of time and
pleasure, and often much fasting before absolution is given
by the priest. They have what is called the confessional,
and the apartments devoted to this purpose are small
closets or curtained places in the church or chapel, wherein
the priest stands, outside of which the person who confesses
kneels with head covered, and repeats his sins, and receives
the admonitions of the priest ; it is not necessary that the
individual be known personally to the priest ; all that the
priest is required to do, is to hear and absolve as he may
deem proper. This constitutes one great hold which the
priesthood have upon the people, and they are willing to
accept from them all advice upon matters of conscience.
The priests wear robes and vestments while officiating in
the church, and these are sometimes very elaborately em-
broidered and enriched by lace and other materials. This
sect denounces as heretics all who do not believe in their
teachings, and they believe that none can be saved outside
of their church, excepting by a special providence of God,
in cases of ignorance of their doctrines.

The Bible is interpreted by their priests for the people,

RELIGIOUS LIFE AND IXSTITUTIOXS.

237

and Roman Catholics are said to be opposed to tlie free
schools of America, because the Bible is permitted to be
read and taught in these schools. They exclude it from
their own schools, as a whole, believing it to be wrong to
place it in the hands of those who may be led to interpret
it for themselves. That portion of it which they allow for
general use contains only the New Testament ; tlie Old
Testament being given in the form of a Bible History
which has been compiled for this purpose. This question
has caused a great deal of discussion in the political world,
as free schools are a government institution, and it has
influenced many political elections throughout the country,
when it has been made a test question whether the candi-
date undei- consideration would vote for or against free
schools. This plan of interpreting the Bible is another
bond of union for Romanists, all being made to adopt the
interpretation of this church before becoming a member
of the same; while Protestants differ and are divided into
sects, just as men will naturally differ on any subject they
are allowed to discuss freely. While the Roman Catholics
are all united under one head, there is, however, a secret
society among them known as Jesuits, whose special ob-
ject is for its propagation. It was this society, as our
readers will remember, who established themselves in
Japan in 1549, but who were destroyed or driven from the
Empire in 1595. This sect had, in 1870, seven archbishops ;
forty-five bishops ; seven vicars-apostolic; thirty-five hun-
dred and five priests, and, according to the best authorities,
three millions three hundred and fifty-four thousand

members.

The most devoted people in this denomination think it in-

238 LIFE AND KESOURCES IN AMERICA.

cumbent upon them to make certain sacrifices of time and
service, and voluntarily go into entire seclusion from the
Avorkl. For this object tliey have institutions called nun-
neries, to which the women retire and take certain vows, and
live within their enclosures during the remainder of their
lives ; of course, these women never marry. Tliere are also
monasteries where tlie men retire from the world and also
take the vow of celibacy, which means never to marry ; they
devote themselves, generally, to teaching young men, and
there is a college for that purpose connected with most of
these institutions; as there are also female academies con-
nected with the nunneries.

Another class of religious people who occupy a position
peculiar to themselves, are the Jews or Israelites, whose his-
tory is identified with ancient and modern times, and more
replete with incidents than any other. Although unable to
give the extent of their population in America, we may
safely state that they are to be found in almost every city
and town in the country, and they claim to have about two
hundi'ed congregations. Though standing alone in their
religious beliefs, they have the credit of manifesting great
energy in prosecuting works of charity in behalf of the sick,
the needy, and the widows and orphans of their own people.
A large proportion of thern are wedded to the doctrines of
their illustrious father, the patriarch Abraham, with whom
the recognition of One Supreme Being originated, and hap
been cherished to the present day by Bible believers. A
party has sprung up among them, of late years, called the
Reformed or Christian Jews, and they advocate a religion
of progress, in which they have been somewhat successful.
They never intermarry with people not of their own race,

RELIGIOUS LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 239

and from time immemorial have been noted for their sagac-
ity in accumulating money. Their history, which occupies
a large space in the Bible, is considered the most wonderful
in the annals of religion throughout the world.

Of all the rites or ceremonies which are practised by the
Jews, the most strict and solemn is that which annually
occurs on what they call the Day of Atonement. It is
marked by a rigid fast, Avliich commences at sunset on one
evening, and ends with sunset on the following day, during
which time the more faithful of the sect will not permit a
morsel of food or water to pass their lips. During all this
period they offer up prayers, clad in such garments as are
used in burying the dead ; and until the close of this spe-
cial season for religious worship their synagogues are
crowded with worshippers, who, like the Quakers, invariably
wear their hats in all public assemblies.

In looking at the people of the United States in the ag-
gregate, it has been estimated that about seven-eighths of
them are either allied to the Protestants, have no religion
at all, or come under the head of miscellaneous sects, while
the remainder are Roman Catholics. Nearly all the de-
nominations are amply supplied with theological institutions,
which number more than one hundred, and those who are
educated in them are always expected to become the advo-
cates of the doctrines in which they have been instructed.
As to the benevolent institutions for the relief of suffering
humanity, they are to be found in nearly all the individual
States, and are chiefly supported by the Protestant sects, or
by the people, through their legislatures. In their internal
arrangements all these asylums and hospitals are in keeping
with the advanced improvements of the age. By means of

240 LIFE AInD RESOUKCES in AMERICA.

raised letters the blind are enabled to read; by wise treat-
ment the insane are made docile, and contented with their
nnhRjjpy condition; and by personal kindness and sign-
alphabets the deaf and the dumb are instructed and made
to forget their misfortunes. The total number of these un-
fortunates in the United States is nearly one hundred thou-
sand.

To give an account of the hospitals, the homes for the
orphan and widow, and other charitable institutions of the
country, would occupy more space than can be aiforded in
this v/ork, but we can state that they are very numerous,
liberally endowed, and as efficiently conducted as any in the
world ; and when necessary, people from every clitne can
find a convenient place where they may be cared for,
whether their troubles are the result of poverty, of acci-
dents, of sickness, or any other misfortunes.

Of all the visible evidences of prosperity among the
religious people of America, the most impressive and exten-
sive are the churches or temples of Christian worship.
Not only are they to be found on almost every street in
the larger cities, but they are the leading architectural
attractions in the towns and villages of the whole country.
Bricks and every variety of stone are employed in their
construction ; every school of architecture is called npon
to beautify them with their designs ; and the money ex-
pended in building them ranges from ten or twenty thou-
sand to one or two millions of dollars. The current
expenses of these churches are paid by voluntary sub-
scription, or with the money received through the renting
or sale of pews or seats.

The ministers who preside over these churches, excepting

EELIGIOUS LIFE AKD INSTITUTIONS. 241

the Roman Catholics, who are supported in a different
manner, receive by way of compensation from five hundred
to ten thousand dollars, according to the wealth of the
congregations. These churches are open for public wor-
ship twice on every Sunday, and occasionally on week-
days; are never used for mere secular purposes; and
in many of them, elaborate music, consisting of sing-
ing combined with magnificent organs, forms an import-
ant part of the services. It is from these churches, more-
over, that the money goes forth for the support of chari-
table and benevolent institutions, and for spreading the
religion of the Bible, by means of missionaries, throughout
the world. There is also attached to most of these congre-
gations what are called Sunday Schools, in which children,
both rich and poor, are instructed in the ways of Christian-
ity. While it is true, as we have already stated, that there
is no State religion in America, it is also true, however,
that the religious denominations of the country occasion-
ally exercise a decided influence in public affairs; and
when a man of mark puts himself forward as a candidate
for an elective office, his chances of success very frequently
turn upon the nature of his religious belief, and hence we
find a perpetual warfare going on in America between the
Protestants and Roman Catholics, which is anything but
creditable to the parties, an honor to the country, or a
blessing to the world.

Although only indirectly connected with the foregoing
subject, we deem it quite proper to append in this place a
few words in regard to the noted secret societies known
as Free-Masons and Odd-Fellows. The first, which is
identified with the history of architecture, is claimed to

11

242 LIFE AN"D RESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

have originated in the religious mysteries of the ancient
world — and especially in Asia Minor. Members of the
fraternity are found in every quarter of the globe, but it is
perhaps more flourishing in the United States than else-
where. They have what they call a Grand Lodge in all
the States of the Union, and many of the most distin-
guished men in this country have been members of the
Order. Their highest officer is called a Royal Arch
Mason : in the exercise of chai'ity, particularly towards
their fellow-members, they are eminently liberal ; and
their houses, which are called temples, are numerous, and
often very handsome ; and their publications are highly
respectable, if not abundant.

The fraternity known as Odd-Fellows bears a general
resemblance to the Free-Masons, traces its origin to the
fourth century, and has, until recently, been confined to
Great Britain and the United States, in which latter coun-
try it is exceedingly prosperous. Like the Free-Masons,
they have their Lodges and many officers, and it is said
that in the last forty years they have expended for chari-
table purj^oses not less than fifteen millions of dollars. The
relief furnished to its members during sickness, and to
their families after death, is accorded to them as a right.
Connected with this Order is an institution which they call
the Grand Encampment, whose members are known as
patriarchs and priests, and which consists of past officers of
the several subordinate Encampments. The State Grand
Lodges consist of the past officers of the subordinate
Lodges ; and the Grand Lodge of the United States,
which is the highest body of the Order in this country, is
formed of Representatives elected by the several State

RELIGIOUS LIFE AND INSTITUTION'S. 243

Grand Lodges. Some years ago, by the action of tlie
present Vice-President of the United States, Schuyler Col-
fax (who is a distinguished member of this Order), women
were admitted to a partial fellowship in it; and since
then, at stated periods, the different subordinate Lodges
confer upon such wives and widows of Odd-Fellows
who may desire it, what is termed the " Degree of
Rebecca."

But there is one feature- connected with religion in
America which is peculiar to this country, and must not
be forgotten in this summary. We allude to the Young
3Ien^s Christian Associations. There ai'e one thousand of
these societies in the United States, and they are conduct-
ed by an active element in the various churches, and
without any denominational distinctions. They are sup-
ported by the free-will contributions on the part of their
members, and their buildings, in the larger cities, are fre-
quently quite splendid and beautiful. They are generally
so arranged as to afford, under one roof, a library of the
best books, a Reading-Room, supplied with the leading
newspapers and periodicals of the day, a General Receiv-
ing-Room, where religious services are held for those who
wish to attend them, and a Lecture-Room, where able men
are invited to lecture. To all of these privileges, except-
ing the lectures, the public are admitted without any
charge, and the good which these associations have already
accomplished, in elevating the tone of society, is considered
in the light of a national blessing.

It is proper, before concluding this chapter, that the
writer should submit a few particulars respecting its
arrangement, w^hich are somewhat personal to himself.

244 LIFE AND RESOUKCES IN" AMERICA.

After bis return to Japan from Europe, some years ago,
he was frequently questioned by his countrymen as to his
opinions about the Christian religion. In his replies, he
took the ground, that, so far as he could understand it, the
Bible was a good and a wise book, but that it contained
many things he did not understand. That while the peo-
ple who called themselves Christians claimed to have the
only true religion, and pretended to be better than all other
men, they did not, in that particular, differ from the
Chinese or Japanese, who assert the same claims for their
religions. He thought it advisable that those who desire
to form any opinion on Christianity, should acquaint them-
selves with it by close and attentive study, and then to
judge for themselves. Hence, in the present chapter his
desire has been simply to give facts, and in the plainest
possible terms. Whatever may be his private opinions
on matters of such great importance, he has not thought
it proper for him either to oppose or advocate them. Ac-
cording to his observations, a very large proportion of the
American people are known by the name of Christians,
and yet a great many things are said and done by them
which do not accord with the principles of their own
Bible; but, is not this true of every nation upon the
earth ? Where men think that they know everything, and
boast of their superior wisdom, the presumption is that
they have yet much to learn ; and all human experience,
as well as the Bible of the Christians, inculcates the idea
that before men can be wise and good, they must be hum-
ble. It would be a very wonderful thing, should the time
ever arrive, when the so-called Christians, who profess the
faith, but do not live up to it, shall cease to boast of the

KELIGIOUS LIFE AIs^D INSTITUTI0:N"S. 245

superiority of their religion, and regard tbemselves as
worse than all other people, because of their guilt in mak-
ing insincere professions. True Christianity raay not be
considered as identical with the general sense of civiliza-
tion— in which the good and the bad participate, — but true
philosophy would seem to teach that it should be a leading
element in such civilization.

LIFE IE" THE FAOTOEIES.

The term factory, as employed in America, meaus a
place where men and women are engaged in fabricating
goods. In this paper it is proposed to speak of those
establishments, especially, where the staples of cotton and
wool are turned into the woven fabrics commonly known
as calicoes, sheetings, carpetings, cloths made of both mate-
rials, as well as hosiery and worsted goods, blankets,
shawls, table-covers, felted cloths, and bed-spreads.

The largest amount of cotton ever produced in this
country in one year was in 1860, the year before the late
rebellion, when the figures reached 4,669,770 bales, each
bale weighing 465 pounds ; and the factories numbered
1,091. According to the last published statistics, the sup-
ply of cotton reached only 2,500,000 bales; the number of
cotton-mills or factories is 831, of which 444 are in New
England, 86 in the Southern States, 220 in the Middle
States, and the balance in the Western States. The total
value of the cotton crop was $270,000,000, and it is said
that the people producing it sold and exported the whole
of it, excepting the value of $10,000,000 kept for home
consumption.

But, however we may arrange the cotton statistics of
America, the fact remains that its cotton manufactures,
though still very large, have declined of late years, and
are greatly excelled by those of England.

LIFE IN" THE FACTOKIES. 247

The annual production of wool in th,e United States is
estimated at about $100,000,000, while that of Great
Britain, in 1868, was, in pounds, 260,000,000; Germany,
200,000,000; France, 123,000,000; Russia in Europe, 125,-
000,000; Spain, Italy, and Portugal, 119,000,000; Austria,
South America, and South Africa, 157,000,000; British
North America, 12,000,000; North Africa, 49,000,000;
and Asia, 470,000,000 ; making the aggregate of wool pro-
duced in the world, 1,610,000,000 pounds, or one pound
and a quarter to each inhabitant on the globe — on the sup-
position that the total population is 1,285,000,000. As is
the case with cotton, the most numerous woolen factories
of America are found in New England. With these few
particulars in view, we may proceed to speak of the pecu-
liarities of factory-life in the United States, which, of
course, must be done in very general terms.

Wherever, in the northern portions of the country, is to
be found the best supply of water, suitable for running
machinery, there do the manufacturing establishments
mostly congregate. And it is because New England is
rocky and not well suited to agriculture, and also because
its rivers are numerous and well adapted for mills, that its
manufactures have become especially celebrated. The vil-
lages which have sprung up out of this kind of business
are to be found in every part of the land ; and while some
of them consist only of the houses collected around one
factory, others contain a number of factories, and are pro-
portionally large. In one place the ownership may be
vested in one man ; at another place in an organized com-
pany of men; and then again, a single man or family may
be the proprietor of several factories, employing thousands

248 LIFE AND RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

of hands to carry them on, and requiring millions of money
for their support. In this connection, a few such men as
Amos and Abbot Lawrence and William Sprague have
acquired national reputations. In many instances the
small villages alluded to are located in the midst of beau-
tiful scenery, and the necessary surroundings of the mills,
which give them existence, are pleasant little churches,
comfortable school-houses, shops for the sale of household
merchandise, and appropriate houses for the shelter of the
operatives. Men, women, and children are all employed
in these factories, and, generally speaking, they absorb all
the laboring population to be found in the country imme-
diately surrounding them, as well as many persons from
abroad. The idea of strict discipline is recognized and
carried out, from the overseer down to the humblest work-
man, and it is in these small villages that a greater amount
of comfort is enjoyed by the persons employed than in the
larger manufacturing cities. Of course, the facilities for
obtaining the raw materials of cotton and wool, and for
transporting the manufactured goods to market, are com-
mensurate with the necessities of the case ; and the estab-
lishments where the goods are sold are generally located
in the larger cities.

But a truly comprehensive idea of factory-life in America
cannot be had without considering its character as we find
it in the larger towns or cities; and no better example can
be selected for that purpose than the city of Lowell, in
Massachusetts. What may be said of this place is also
true, only in a different degree, of all the factory-towns
throughout the country, and especially such places as
Lawrence, Providence, Norwich, and Worcester; and it

LIPE IN THE FACTORIES. 249

may safely be said, that the aggregate number of persons who
obtain their living by means of the cotton and woolen facto-
ries of the country, is not less than three hundred thousand.
The growth and prosperity of Lowell, as a manufacturing
town, are without any parallel in America. It lies on the
river Merrimac, and the water-power is formed by dams
that are thirty feet high. It has not less than fifteen
manufacturing corporations, with about sixty mills, which
employ a capital of fifteen millions of dollars, and support
about fifteen thousand hands, from the beginning to the
close of the year, while the entire population of the city is
nearly fift}^ thousand. All the mills are heated by steam
and lighted by gas. The women who work in them far
outnumber the men ; and although, a few years ago, much
the larger proportion of these were native Americans, so
great a change has taken place in this particular, that the
majority are now foreigners, and chiefly Irish. The men are
without ambition, and the women work for the sole purpose
of making money, and not because they like the employ-
ment. AYidows are there, toiling for the education of their
children ; and daughters are there, hoarding up their
wages to pay the debts of improvident fathers. The labor
of the w^omen is essentially on an equality with that of the
men ; but w^hile the former receive from two to three
dollars per week, in addition to their board, the latter
receive from four to six dollars for the same period. The
time for labor ranges from ten to twelve hours per day,
and extra sets of hands are often employed for night-work.
The hands are summoned to their work by the ringing of
bells; a brief time only is allowed for meals ; and the only
opportunities which the operatives have for recreation or

11*

250 LIFE AND RESOURCES I^ AMERICA.

Study are at night, when worn out with the f;\tigue engen-
dered by the jar and whirl of the machinery in the mills.
When the American element prevailed in these factories,
an earnest effort was made to elevate the minds of the
thousands of girls employed, and for a time these efforts
were successful. A monthly periodical was established,
called the "Lowell Offering," which was supported en-
tirely by the productions of females working in the mills,
and in which many valuable papers were published. For
a time this magazine was very successful, and excited much
wonder and comment among the factory-people of Kew
England, but the novelty soon wore off, and the work was
suspended. A leading American writer, while mourning
over this fact, and also over the fact that there was so
little comfort to be found in these large manufacturing
towns, said, that the patron-saint of Lowell was Work;
that the "Factory Girls" might be counted by the
acre; that the motto over the gateways should be,
"Work or Die;" and that the fifty factories in the
city were each larger and more imposing than the
temples of worship in Japan and China. In the largest of
these mills from one thousand to fifteen hundred women or
girls are constantly employed, and from three hundred to
five hundred men. Each manufacturing company owns
from twenty to thirty dwellings, which are leased to
responsible persons as boarding-houses, for the exclusive
benefit of the hands employed in the factories. These
dwellings are large enough to accommodate from forty to
fifty inmates, and the sexes are kept entirely separate.
The corporations also provide hospitals in which the work-
people find attendance in sickness, for which, if they be

LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 251

unable to pay, the employers are responsible. While it is
true that the young people who are obliged to work in the
factories have little or no time to cultivate their minds, the
younger children of the married people have every facility
afforded them to obtain knowledge; the common-schools
of the city are numerous, well conducted, and chiefly under
the direction of competent female teachers. There is also
a good library in the city, where all who are fond of read-
ing, no matter how poor, can be furnished with useful and
entertaining books : and the religious privileges enjoyed by
all, by means of numerous churches, and the weekly day of
rest, which is called Sunday, are all that could be desired.
But notwithstanding these many advantages, recent writers
on this subject have declared that the extinction of the
educated American operative has become an accomplished
fact, and the mills of Lowell, as well as those of the Atlan-
tic States generally, are now w^orked, as already stated, by
immigrants from Europe — from Ireland, Wales, and Ger-
many. But these, as they grow in intelligence, and begin
to go westward, like their predecessors, demand higher
wages, shorter hours for work, and more freedom. They
have learned the European lesson of fighting employers by
combinations ; and, altogether, the problem has become so
confused that the manufacturers are beginning to look for
relief to the Chinese, a number of whom have already been
induced to enter the factories of New England. American
girls are said to be growing dissatisfied with the restraints
of factory-life, where they have to compete with the more
rugged and experienced women from European countries ;
hence they go to the larger cities, and become domestic
servants ; but that kind of employment they find irksome,

252 LIFE AND RESOURCES I:N' AMERICA.

and so they make another effort to succeed according to
their wishes, and emigrate, as best they can, to the western
States.

In the further elucidation of this subject, it is proper
that we should consider the opinions of the manufacturers
themselves. They assert that the opprobrious epithet of
" white slavery," which has sometimes been applied to the
labor in the New England factories, is wholly unwarranted.
They claim to have purged it of every element of feudal-
ism ; that they have avoided the English plan of employ-
ing whole families in the mill, often including children, who
should have been at school, — the families being kept in a
state of absolute dependence upon the mill, and exposed to
suffering whenever business was not prosperous. They
claim also to have abolished the custom of payment by
orders on a factory-store, which tended to involve the work-
people in debt, and they instituted the practice of weekly
payment of wages in money ; and that they have done all
that could be done, to secure the independence as well as
comfort of the American operatives.

And here, it occurs to us, we may furnish a further illus-
tration of factory-life in America by submitting a brief
description of what may be termed a model New England
establishment, as follows : It is located in the city of Law-
rence ; is a joint-stock company, with 150 stockholders
and 9 directors ; has 100,000 spindles ; and has a capital
of $2,500,000, while its property is valued at a consider-
able advance on that sura. The manufactured goods,
consisting chiefly of fabrics for the wear of women, made
both of cotton and wool, which are annually sold,
amounting to about 17,500,000; and the total dividends

LIFE IN THE FACTOEIES. 253

declared, daring the last twelve years, was more than
$3,000,000.

The total number of work-people employed in this factory
is 3,600, of whom the men number 1,680 ; women, 1,510 ;
boys between ten and twelve years of age, 80, and
between twelve and eighteen, 140 ; girls between ten
and twelve, 40, and between twelve and eighteen, 150.
The lowest weekly wages, according to gold rates, are as
follows: for men, |6.75 ; women, $2.48; boys, $2.85; and
young girls, $1.82 ; while spinners, weavers, and a few
others, receive according to the quantity of goods pro-
duced, and some of them large wages. Very many of the
operatives are frugal with their money, and have invested
their earnings in the stock of the company itself, deposited
it in Savings Banks, or purchased the bonds of the General
Government ; some of tliem have been so successful as to
be elected members of the City Government ; and not a
few are the owners of comfortable houses. Where men are
obliged to hire houses, they pay only one-eighth of their
waives for rent ; and for the comfort and accommodation
of the unmarried females a large building has been erected,
holding not less than eight hundred persons, who pay for
food, lights, and washing, only one-third of their regular
wages. Connected with the establishment is what they
call a " Relief Society," organized for the care and support
of the sick among the work-people. Every possible atten-
tion is paid both to the morals and intellectual culture of
the operatives. No men are employed who are intemperate
in their habits, and the use of profane language and the ill-
treatment of subordinates strictly prohibited. All females
are compelled to be at their lodgings by ten o'clock at

254 LIFE AKD KESOUECES IN" AMERICA.

night, and none of them are permitted to attend improper
places of resort. No child under ten years of age, accord-
ing to law, is allowed to work in the factory, and all the
boys and girls must be furnished with from eleven to six-
teen weeks of schooling, in each year, and all the schools
are paid for by the company. Of the persons employed, less
than fifty in every thousand are unable to read, and for the
benefit of all there is a well-conducted library, with pleas-
ant reading-rooms for both sexes, and every facility is
afibrded for attending lectures, and places of profitable
amusement. A week's labor in this establishment will
produce more yards of cloth than is produced in any
European mill, but it is claimed that a yard of cloth costs
less in Europe, which latter point, however, is not con-
ceded by the Americans.

But let us now look for a moment at some of the local
results of the cotton and woolen manufactures of recent
times. It has been said, that where one person, a century
ago, consumed one yard of woven goods, the consumption,
per head, has since risen to about twenty-six yards. This
vast difference in the comforts of every family, by the abil-
ity which they now possess of easily acquiring warm and
healthful clothing, is a clear gain to all society, and to
every individual as a portion of society. It is more espe-
cially a gain, they say, to the females and the children of
families, whose condition is always degraded when cloth-
ing is scanty. The power of procuring cheap clothing for
themselves and for their children, has a tendency to raise
the condition of females more than any other addition to
their stock of comfort. It cultivates habits of cleanliness
and decency, which are considered, in America, great aids

LIFE IN THE FACTORIES. 255

to virtue, if not actual virtues themselves. There is little
self-respect amid dirt and rags, according to the American
belief, and without self-respect there can be no foundation
for those qualities which mostly contribute to the ^ood of
society. The power of procuring useful clothing at a
cheap price has tended to raise the condition of women in
America, and the influence of the condition of women upon
the welfare of a community can never be too highly esti-
mated. If there be one thing more remarkable than
another in the visible condition of the people of the United
States, it is the universality of good clothing. The dis-
tinction between the rich man and the artisan, or between
the lady and her maid, is oftentimes almost imperceptible.
Perhaps the absence of mere finery, and the taste which
accompanies good education, constitute the chief difference
in the dress of various ranks ; and this feature of the pres-
ent time is a part of the social history of America.

The history of the cotton and woolen manufactures has
occupied the minds of many of the ablest men in the
world, and their developments are of vital interest to the
whole human family. The arts of spinning and weaving
were slowly developed from the time of the simple distaff*,
and it was just as they had reached something like com-
pletion, that an American, named Eli Whitney, invented
the cotton-gin, in 1793, which at once gave anew character
and impulse to the growth, as well as the manufacture,
of cotton. This invention was the final step, by which the
whole process of manufacturing cotton into cloth was
effected by machinery; and just about that time, steam
was introduced to the world as an agent of limitless power,
in driving machinery of every kind; new channels of

256 LIFE AJ5"D EESOUECES IK AMERICA.

internal communication were opened between the different
parts of the world; chemistry furnished the means for
rapidly bleaching the fabrics produced from cotton ; and
all the- resources of science and skill, of invention and
industry, seemed combined to create an immensely in-
creased demand for the raw material upon which all these
labors were to be expended. And if something like this
enterprise can be transported to Japan, what may we not
expect, in the future, from that Empire ?

There are many wonderful inventions connected with the
manufacture of cotton, but nothing is perhaps more aston-
ishing than the rapidity with which some portions of the
machinery is employed. Notice the fact, for example, that
the very finest thread which is used in making lace is
passed through the strong flame of a lamp, which burns
off the fibres, without burning the thread itself The
velocity with which the thread moves is so great, that the
motion cannot be perceived. The line of thread, passing
off a wheel through the flame, looks as if it were perfectly at
rest ; and it appears a miracle that it is not burned. The
primary object of the extensive and complicated machinery
employed in the manufacture of cotton has been, of course,
cheapness of production, and in that particular the advance,
from the time of the distaff, has been wonderful, and suc-
cess complete. Nor has this been done at the expense of
the working classes. Ten years after the introduction of
the machines, the people employed in the trade, spinners
and weavers, were more than forty times as numerous as
when the spinning was done by hand. It was thought
that the newly discovered power might supersede human
labor altogether, but such was by no means the case. It

LIFE IK THE FACTORIES. 257

only gave a new direction to the labor that had previously-
been employed at the distaff and spindle ; but it increased
the quantity of labor altogether employed in the manu-
facture of cotton, at least a hundredfold. What is here
said of the machines for manufacturing cotton, is also true
of those employed in the woolen, the silk, and the linen
manufactories, and to the uneducated eye and understand-
ing they are all wonderful, and of incalculable value to
the commercial world.

But there is another curious machine which we may,
with propriety, mention in this place, and that is one for
m.aking needles. Hitherto the largest number of needles
used in America were made in England ; but there is a
machine in New Haven in which the whole process is per-
formed without the manual labor of a single person. A
coil of steel wire is put into it ; then the machine cuts it
off at the required lengths, punches the eyeholes, counter-
sinks the eyes, and then sharpens the needle, when it drops
out a perfected thing. They are also arranged and put
up in paper by another machine; and the number of
needles thus manufactured per day by each machine is
about forty thousand.

But before dismissing the subject under consideration,
we would submit to the Japanese reader a few remarks on
the art, whose object is merely to beautify the very numer-
ous fabrics which are made in the various factories already
alluded to, — the art of printing cloth in colors. It applies
to the most common as w^ell as to the finest productions of
the loom ; and the science of the dyer, the beauty of his
patterns, and the perfection of his machinery, have become
universally celebrated. As an experienced writer has said,

258 LIFE Ai^D EESOURCES IN" AMERICA.-

there is a striking, although natural parallel, between print-
ing a piece of cloth and printing the sheets of a book or
newspaper. Block-printing is the impress of the pattern
by hand, as block-books were made four centuries ago.
There are no block-books now, for machinery has banished
that tedious process. But block-j)rinting is used for costly
shawls and velvets, which require to have many colors pro-
duced by repeated impressions from blocks covered with
different colors. Except for the most expensive fabrics,
however, this mode is superseded by block-printing with a
press, in which several blocks are set in a frame. Then
again they have what they call cylinder-printing, which re-
sembles the rapid working of the book-printing machine,
each producing with great cheapness. As the pattern has
to be obtained from several cylinders, each having its own
color, there is great nicety in the operation ; and the most
beautiful mechanism is necessary for feeding the cylinder
with color ; moving the cloth to meet the revolving cylin-
der; and giving to the machine its power of impression.
But those who witness this operation can hardly realize the
ultimate effect subsequently obtained by the process of dye-
ing. Fast colors are produced by the use in the patterns
of substances called mordants ; which may be colorless
themselves, but receive the color of the dye-bath, w^hich
color is only fixed in the parts touched by the mordants,
and is washed out from the parts not touched. Other pro-
cesses are also employed, which enhance the beauty of the
fabrics.

It is thus seen that the chemist, the machinist, the de-
signer, and the engraver, set the calico-printing works in
operation, so that the carrying on of this complicated busi-

LIFE 1^ THE FACTOEIES. 359

ness can only be profitably done on a large scale. Very
numerous also are the employments required merely to pro-
duce the dyes with which the calico-printer works. The
mineral, vegetable, and even the animal kingdom, combine
their natural productions in the colors of a lady's dress ;
there is the sulphur from Sicily, salt from Austria or Turk's
Island, peculiar woods from Brazil, indigo from the East and
West Indies, madder from France, and insects from Mexi-
co. The discoveries of science, in combination w^ith expe-
rience and skill, have set all this industry in motion, and
given a value to innumerable productions of nature which
would otherwise be useless or unemployed ; and they also
create modes of cultivation which are important sources of
national prosperity. But of all the discoveries of chem-
istry, in this connection, was that of chloride of lime, Avhich
has become the universal bleaching powder of modern man-
ufactures. What was formerly the work of eight months,
is now accomplished in an hour or two, — so that a bag of
raw, dingy cotton may now be converted into the whitest
cloth within the space of a single month.

As an appropriate conclusion to the foregoing remarks,
we may now submit a few general facts on the American
Tariff of duties on imported merchandise. This has been
the means on which the Federal Government has chiefly de-
pended for its support ever since it came into existence.
It has also been amply sufficient for affording money to ex-
tend its territory, carry on w^ars, execute treaties, and accu-
mulate a large property in lands, buildings, and materials
for war. From the earliest times, however, the people have
been divided into two great political parties on this subject,
and yet the friends and opponents of the measure have in

260 LIFE Aiq'D RESOURCES 11^ AMERICA.

the main admitted that it is the best means for raising the
public revenue, inasmuch as direct taxation has been thought
impolitic for Federal revenue. There is a large class of peo-
ple, moreover, who believe that the levying of duties is
detrimental to the agricultural interests. These, and numer-
ous questions of a similar character, have long occupied the
minds of the leading statesmen of the United States, and
they remain unsettled to this day. As the political parties
have gained ascendency, so have the tariff rates been
changed or modified, from time to time ; and in looking
back over the forty years prior to the late civil war, we find
that the rates of duty have varied from eighteen to forty-
eight per centum, and that the largest receipts from customs
during the period in question were in 1854, and amounted
to $64,224,190, — when the free imports reached $33,285,821,
and the dutiable imports $271,276,560. The total imports
at the port of New York, in 1870, amounted to $315,200,-
022, and the exports to $254,137,208 ; while the figures
for all the States for the same year were, imports, $373,894,-
980, and the exports, $328,072,226; and for 1869, imports,
$463,461,427, and exports, $394,644,335. That these enor-
mous figures have an important bearing upon the success,
or want of success, of the factory-system in the United
States, must be apparent to all men who investigate these
subjects.

In accounting for the excess of imports over the exports,
it may be stated that the diflTerence arises chiefly from the
importation of articles of luxury. The American people are
practical, and while they confine themselves chiefly to pro-
ducing the necessaries and comforts of life, and to accumu-
lating money, they are quite willing to obtain their fashions

LIFE IX THE PACTORIES. 261

and articles of luxury from Europe. ISTotwithstanding the
immense immigration from abroad, the American people
have always had enough to feed all who come to their
shores, and to provide employment for all ; and the strength
of the nation is shown by the fact that, in spite of the
large amounts which are expended for the mere elegancies
of life, which the rich bring over from Europe, the country
is constantly prospering.

But again. Statistics show that the trade of the United
States has been regularly progressing, until interfered with
by the late civil war. Generally speaking, the exports have
exceeded the imports, and the balance of trade has been
in favor of America. The export of grain does not de-
pend upon the state of the crops so much as upon the wants
of other countries. The great variety of the native pro-
ductions exported gives assurance of the impossibility of
failure of the resources of the nation. Figures also show
that there is no industrial pursuit in which the people of the
United States do not regularly progress, and that there is
little demand for any class of produce which they are not
able to supply.

As the revenue of the country depends in a great measure
upon the customs duties, so does its prosperity chiefly de-
pend upon the amount of its exports of bread-stuffs and all
sorts of merchandise ; but as the theories which have been
brought to bear upon this subject are widely different, and
have occupied the minds of the ablest writers, they cannot
be entered upon in this chapter. Upon one subject, how-
ever, all men are agreed, viz. : that the extension of com-
merce will do more than anything else to diffuse the
blessings of civilization, to bind together the universal

262 LIFE AND EESOUKCES IIT AMERICA.

society of nations, by sharpening and at the same time
gratifying their mutual wants and desires, and to maintain
undisturbed that tranquillity so indispensable to its full
development.

P. S. Since the foregoing chapter was sent to the printer
we have received from the Bureau of Statistics and the
Census Bureau some interesting particulars bearing upon
the Factory, Mechanical, and Farm-life of the United
States, which ought not to be omitted in this place. The
following have -reference to 1869. The hours of labor per
week were sixty-six ; and, omitting overseers, the average
weekly earnings of operatives in the cotton mills was
$5.56 in gold. The wages in the woolen mills ranged from
$5 to $17 per week, including overseers; in the paper
mills from $4.50 to $26 ; in establishments for making
musical instruments from $15 to $31 ; in foundries and
machine shops from $8 to $24 ; and in leather- establish-
ments from $9 to $25 per week. In 18*70, the average
daily wages for blacksmiths, $4.85 ; masons, $5.66; cabinet-
makers, $4.99 ; carpenters, $5.03 ; coopers, $4.30 ; painters,
$5.36; plasterers, $6.51 ; shoemakers, $4.49; stonecutters,
$6.10; tailors, $4.58 ; tanners, $3.97 ; tinsmiths, $4.96;
and wheelwrights, $5.37. The wages for farm-labor in the
Eastern States ranged from 73 cents to $1.49 per day,
but on the Pacific States and Territories, from $1.35 to
$2.97 per day. As a subject of general interest, we also
submit a list, showing the average retail prices for the
leading necessaries of life, in 1869, as follows: Flour,
$7.36 per barrel ; beef, veal, mutton, and pork, 9 to 22
cents per pound ; butter, 38 cents per pound ; dried fish.

LIFE liT THE FACTORIES. 263

13 to 15 cents per pound; potatoes, per bushel, 15 cents;
rice, per pound, 13 cents; beans, 11 cents; milk, 9 cents
per quart ; eggs, 29 cents per dozen ; tea, $1.40 per pound ;
coffee, 28 to 35 cents; sugar, 15 to 17 cents per pound ;
coal, $10.80 per ton; and wood, per cord, $3.98 to $4.98.
The prices for plain house-rent ranged from $10 to $15
per month; and plain board from $4.14 to $4.80 j^er week.
And finally, for the want of a better place to print them,
Ave submit the following aggregate of returns for the
year 1870, respecting the agricultural resources of the
country :

Acres improved, 188,806,761

Acres woodland, 158,908,121

Acres unimproved, , 59,366,633

Cash value of farms, $9,261,775,121

Cash value of agricultural implements, $336,890,871

Wages paid, $310,068,473

Farm products, $2,445,602,379

Value of live stock,. $1,524,271,714

"Wheat, bushels, 267,730,931

Eye, bushels, 17,000,000

Indian com, bushels, 760,963,204

Oats, bushels, 282,095,996

Barley, bushels, 29,761,267

Buckwheat, bushels, 9,821,662

Eice, pounds, 73,635,021

Tobaceo, pound?, 262,729,640

Cotton, bales, 2,999,721

Wool, pounds, 102,053,264

Potatoes, bushels, 143,230,000

Sweet potatoes, bushels, 21,634,000

Wine, gallons, 3,096,000

Cheese, pounds, 53,492,000

Butter, pounds.. 514,002,460

264 LIFE AI^D RESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

Milk, gallons 236,500,000

Hay, tons, 27,416,000

Hops, pounds, , . . . 28,456,669

Sugar (cane), pounds, 87,043,000

Sugar (maple), pounds, 28,443,000

Molasses (cane), gallons, 6,600,000

Molasses (sorghum), gallons, 16,041,000

EDUOATIO]N"AL LIFE AH"D IWSTI-
TUTIOSrS.

Although the cause of education in America has always
been considered of primary interest and importance, there
does not, after all, exist a regular and uniform system of
instruction. The diversity of j^lans is almost as various as
the several States of the Union are numerous; for each
State, in its sovereign capacity, has a right to devise and
execute, and does execute, such provisions for the educa-
tion of the people as are deemed expedient. Setting aside,
therefore, a detailed account of all the existing plans, we
can only consider in this place the characteristics of the
school systems of the States, in their collective capacity.
It should be remembered, however, that the Federal Gov-
ernment is a most liberal patron of the schools in all parts
of the country, and that a majority of the States have re-
ceived large grants of land, to be used for the support of
educational institutions, and that they have appropriate
officers to look after and expend the revenue derived from
the sale of those lands. Ten years ago, the aggregated
amount of money realized from the liberality of the Gen-
eral Government was about $50,000,000, but this amount
has been annually increased since then ; and when to this
fund we add the appropriations regularly made by the
State Legislatures, we find that the total amount of money
spent for educational purposes is truly enormous, and that,

12

26*6 LIFE AND EESOURCES li^ AMERICA.

in this particular, if not in any other, the States of Amer-
ica are unequalled by any other nation. Hence it is that
there is ample provision made by the authorities alone,
without including the munificent gifts of private indi-
viduals, to furnish every child in the land with a good
education ; and the black race, or Freedmen, have the same
privileges which are enjoyed by the whites. Prior to the
late rebellion, there existed no provision for the education
of the colored race, but as soon as they became free,
measures were taken for their education, and in 1869 the
total number who were known to be in attendance upon
day, night, or Sunday schools, under the auspices of the
Freedmen's Bureau, was upward of 250,000, and the freed-
men paid out of their own earnings about $200,000 for
tuition, and $125,000 for school-buildings.

But we must now proceed to submit a general account
of the educational systems of the United States, and we
begin with the common-schools, the principle of which is
the free elementary education of every child in the com-
munity, and which underlies the whole intellectual fabric
of the American Republic. The system, as formerly prac-
tised, originated in New England at the commencement of
the present century, and was based upon the following
ideas : First, the instruction of all the children in the State in
the rudiments of an English education, viz., reading, writ-
ing, elementary arithmetic and geography, and grammar,
this to be accomplished by schools in every district ; Sec-
ond, each district to be independent of every other in all
financial matters and management ; Third, that there should
be a superintendent or board of visitors in each town, gen-
erally consisting of professional men, and especially clergy-

EDUCATIONAL LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 267

men, to examine teachers, inspect the schools, and prescribe
text-books ; Fourth, the support of these schools by taxation ;
and Fifth, the power of compelling attendance on the part of
the town authorities. After an experience of nearly twenty
years, it was found that the condition of the schools was
not up to the demands of the time, and a revival in the
cause of education took place, which resulted in greatly
increasing the efficiency of the old system, until it was
brought to a state of rare excellence, through the efforts
of such men as Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. The
school-system was again regenerated, and now possesses all
the elements of the highest efficiency, the leading features
of which are as follows : First, a system of graded schools
for each town, embracing primary schools for the younger
pupils; grammar-schools for the older, in which are taught,
in addition to the common branches, philosophy, chemistry,
history, drawing, music, algebra, geometry, and the French
language; high-schools for the more advanced, in which
are taught the studies necessary for a business education,
as well as the languages and the higher mathematics. Sec-
ondly, the employment of regular visitors, who are paid for
their services. Thirdly, the enforcement of uniformity of
text-books, and regularity in attendance. Fourthly, regu-
lar and frequent public examinations. Fifthly, the estab-
lishment of school libraries in connection with all the
schools. Sixthlj^, the introduction of blackboards, globes,
maps, charts, and other apparatus for instruction. Sev-
enthly, the proper construction of school-houses. Eighthly,
the establishment in every State of normal schools for the
instruction of regular teachers. Ninthly, the organization
of State associations for comparison of methods of teach-

268 LIFE AN'D RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

ing, and the establishment of school periodicals. And,
Tenthly, the extension of the iDrivileges of these schools to
all the children of the school-age in each State, either by-
supporting the schools entirely by taxation and the income
of funds where they exist, or by taxation and small rate-
bills, which are abated where they are unable to pay, and
the furnishing of necessary books to the children of the
poor.

That the above is a noble groundwork for the education
of the masses must be acknowledged by all, and yet we
find it a subject of serious complaint that the teachers in
the common-schools are not what they should be. In the
great majority of cases, they are said to be too young and
inexperienced, and that both the young men and young
women employed look upon the office merely as a step-
ping-stone to better positions or more agreeable employ-
ments, and not as a permanent business. An office under
the Government, or a profession, will allure the young man
from the school-room; and so also will an offer of mar-
riage, the young woman. Of course there are many teach-
ers whose knowledge, discipline, and nobleness of character,
eminently fit them for their resj^onsible jDOsts, but they
are not sufficiently numerous to form a class; and it was
this fact which caused a prominent writer on the subject to
suggest that all badly-managed schools should be closed,
and that the houses should bear this inscription : " Poor
teachers worse than no teachers." In the one particular to
which we have alluded, it is confessed by leading Amer-
icans, that Prussia is far in advance of the United States.
But notwithstanding this drawback, the common-schools
of the country are a great national blessing. They are

EDUCATIOis"AL LIPE Ais'D IXSTITUTIOiH"S . 269

free and open to the poorest children in the community ;
but because these advantages are not always accepted by
the people, in some of the States of the Union, laws have
been passed compelling a certain attendance at school.
The houses are comfortable, and conveniently located in
every district where they are needed. The teachers are
generally intelligent and circumspect in their lives and
morals, and where they make teaching a regular profession,
are all that could be reasonably expected or desired.
With regard to their compensation there is no uniformity,
but it is estimated to range from $39 to $57 per month
for male teachers, with board, and from $27 to $30 per
month for female teachers, with board. But, perhaps a
better idea, on this head, may be obtained by looking
at the average of the annual salaries which have recently
been paid in some of the leading cities, as follows:
Boston, $798; Cincinnati, $769; New Haven, $577; New
York, $649; New Orleans, $675; Philadelphia, $415;
San Francisco, $829, and Washington, $507. Nor is
there, as we have already stated, any uniformity in the
management of the schools by the State authorities, and
so, with a view of attempting to give a general idea of
their condition, we submit the following figures in regard
to four of the representative States of the republic : The
number of scholars who attend school in the small State of
Connecticut, is 124,000; amount expended in 1870 for
school purposes, $1,269,152, and its school-fund is $2,046,-
108: in New York there are 1,000,000 children in the
common-schools, and 120,000 in the private schools; the
school-houses are valued at $20,500,000; the amount paid
to teachers, is $6,500,000; amount expended in 1870 for

270 LIFE AKD EESOUECES li^ AMEEICA.

instruction, nearly $10,000,000, and the school-fund is
$11,300,000: in Pennsylvania, the scholars are 900,753;
schools, 14,212; teachers, 17,612; school property, $14,-
045,632, and annual expenses about $7,000,000; and in
Ohio, the scholars are 740,382, and the school expenditures
in 1870 amounted to $7,771,761. Total amount of school-
fund in all the States is estimated at $50,000,000. We
give no figures in regard to any of the Southern States,
first, because the system of common-schools has never
flourished in that region of the country, and secondly,
because the late war has so deranged all public matters in
those States, that no statements at this time would do
them full justice. Kotwithstanding all that has been done
in the United States for the cause of education, it has
been estimated that the illiterate people of the country
number about 6,000,000.

With regard to the much discussed subject of the Bible
in common-schools, we may submit the foUoAving remarks
by a distinguished professor of Harvard University : " To
banish the Bible was to garble history, for there was much
history of which it was the only source. Christianity is
the great factor in the history of the world. If moral
philosophy is to be taught, it must be Christian ethics.
For the culture of the taste and imagination, the Bible
transcends all other literature. Our English Bible has
rendered important service in preserving our language. It
is the key to the best English diction, and has helped to
form the diction of every child. Our children should not
be kept in ignorance of the fact that we are a Christian
people. Sectarian religion should be excluded ; but this
can be done only by giving an unsectarian book^ and the

EDUCATIOis'AL LIFE Ai^TD IN"STITUTIOJs^S. 271

Bible is such a book. The Komaii Catholics, in opposing
the introduction of the Bible in common-schools, do not so
much object to the book itself, but rather desire that the
school-funds should be separated, which course the Pro-
testants think would be detrimental to the welfare of the
whole system."

With a view of enhancing the efficiency of the common-
schools in the United States, there have been organized
within the last few years a large number of Normal schools,
the sole object of which is to educate a class of persons
solely for the business of teaching, w^hereby very great
good has already been accomplished, in elevating the tone
of instruction. At the present time there are fifty of these
schools in successful operation in the Northern States,
which are supported by the City or State Governments,
and not less than thirty in the Southern States, for the
benefit of the freedmen ; — and the number of teachers
already educated by them, including males and females, is
estimated at two hundred thousand, and the pupils now
being instructed about nine thousand. While there is no
special uniformity in the management of these schools, we
may obtain a general idea of their character by glancing
at the features of a single one of them which has been par-
ticularly successful, viz. : the Normal University of Illinois.
Candidates for admission to this institution, whether male
or female, must have attained the age of sixteen : must
produce certificates of good moral character ; must sign a
declaration that they intend to devote themselves to school-
teaching in Illinois ; and must pass a satisfactory examina-
tion in reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography,
and the elements of English grammar. The necessary

272 LIFE AKD EESOURCES IIT AMERICA.

annual expenses for each pupil range from ninety-seven to
one hundred and eighty-eight dollars. There are five pro-
fessors, and the term of study is the usual one of three
years : and the course of instruction embraces the follow-
ing subjects : metaphysics, history and methods of educa-
tion, constitution of the State and the United States,
school-laws, English language, arithmetic, algebra, geom-
etry, natural philosophy, book-keeping, geography, history,
astronomy, chemistry, botany, physiology, geology, vocal
music, and writing and drawing. The total number of
pupils is three hundred ; and there is an appendage to the
institution called, a model school, which contains five hun-
dred pupils, whose tuition is free, although they have to
support themselves. While the Americans confess that
their common-schools are not equal in efficiency to those
of some other countries, they claim that this state of things
cannot continue, and that their Normal schools, as at pres-
ent organized, are unsurpassed.

Before an American youth can pass from a common-
school into a college, he is obliged to go through a course
of studies in what is called a high-school, or academy.
These institutions are exceedingly varied in character,
quite numerous, independent in organization, and very
frequently originate in the liberality of private individuals.
Although the instruction afforded b}^ them is not gratui-
tous, the expenses are generally moderate. In some of
them, however, provision is made by public appropriations
for the education of such pupils as are too poor to pay.
It often happens, however, that when young men are about
to leave the academy or high-school, they conclude that
their education has been sufficiently advanced for all prac-

EDUCATIONAL LIFE AKD IXSTITUTIOXS. 273

tical purposes, and so relinquish the idea of passing through
college.

And here, before describing the colleges and universi-
ties of America, we may with propriety allude to the
present condition of the miscellaneous schools of the
country. Of distinct schools of science, unconnected
with colleges, there are none of any importance; but the
Sheffield Scientific School, which forms a part of Yale Col-
lege, and the Lawrence Scientific School, connected with
Harvard University, are both flourishing institutions, and
are doing much to meet the wants of the age ; while there
are departments, standing on nearly the same basis, belong-
ing to Brown University, Rutgers College, and the Uni-
versity of Michigan. As to Industrial Schools, there is
also a great dearth of these in the United States ; especi-
ally is this true in regard to Engineering and Navigation ;
and about all that is accomplished in the country, in the
way of art-instruction, is accomplished by the National
Academy and Cooper Institute of New York, the Athe-
naeum in Boston, the Academy of Arts in Philadelphia,
and the Peabody Institute in Baltimore. In Massachusetts,
New York, and Pennsylvania, they have Institutions of
Technology; in California, a College of Mining and the
Mechanic Arts, associated with Agriculture ; and attached
to Columbia College, in New York, they have a School of
Mines. As to the advantages afibrded by agricultural
Colleges, they are quite numerous, and well-endowed
institutions are to be found in the States of Delaware,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Mary-
land, Massachusetts (where there are several Japanese
students), Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Pennsyl-

12*

274 LIFE AXD EESOUECES lis" AMERICA.

vania, Vermont^ West Virginia, and Wisconsin. In none
of the public schools of America are the foundation prin-
ciples of commerce taught, and hence there have been
established by private individuals what is called a " Chain
of Commercial Colleges;" — they number not less than
forty, and extend from Maine to Louisiana; their course of
instruction is very complete, and covers all that is neces-
sary for a commercial life ; and because this association is
under one head, the regulations are such, that a student,
after completing a course of studies in one, may again take
them up and pursue them at another school of the Chain,
without additional expense. With regard to the theologi-
cal institutions, they have already been mentioned in a
previous part of this volume ; and on a page which is to
follow, w^e shall sj^eak of the Army and Navy Schools of
the country. The only schools remaining to be mentioned
under this miscellaneous head are those devoted to the
study of medicine and law. The Medical Colleges and
Schools of the country number fifty-one, and, first and
last, as a competent writer has said, there have stood at
the head of them men of learning, genius, and eminent
distinction. And so there have also been, in the ranks of
the profession, many physicians and surgeons of great
ability and skill. But hardly any one who is acquainted
with the status of medical education in America, will claim
that either the distinguished professor, author, or practi-
tioner, has owed his success, in any considerable degree, to the
training of the schools ; for, as compared with the Euro-
pean standard, the training in America has been unsatis-
factor}^ to the last degree. The Law Schools of the L^nited
States number twenty-two ; and it is said that, in at least

EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS. 275

one respect, they are superior to those of England : — in
that, what they, assume to do at all, they do more thor<
oughly and well. But it is no less true that they under-
take very little in comparison with what is both attempted
and accomphshed in several of the European countries. In
the form of departments, there are schools of law connec-
ted with many of the leading colleges ; and in all of them
the term of study is two years, the course of instruction
being so arranged that a complete view is given during
each year of the subjects embraced within it. The pro-
fessors number from one to five in each of these schools ;
a majority of them, in many instances, being judges of
the Supreme Courts and resident lawyers in regular prac-
tice, whose services are gratuitous or partially compen-
sated. The terms of admission are simply good morals
and the age of eighteen years, and the fees, payable in
advance, amount to one hundred dollars. The lawyers of
the United States, as heretofore mentioned, have much to
do with the making of the national laws, and the affairs of
the General Government ; and a competent American
critic has said, how few of them have been students of
political economy, of civil polity, and of universal history,
is painfully manifest from the legislative discussions they
hold and the laws they enact.

We come now to speak, in general terms, of the Colle-
giate Institutions of the United States, known as univer-
sities, colleges, seminaries, and institutes, and which
number in the aggregate not less than two hundred and
eighty-five,— exclusive of eighty-two, in which theology is
alone studied. While their courses of instruction embrace
all branches of learning, it is almost invariably the case that

276 LIFE AND RES0UECE3 liT AMERICA.

something like a sectarian element pervades each institu-
tion, the only exceptions to this rule being those which are
supported by the State governments. The number of insti-
tutions in America bearing the title of university is larger
than in any other country, and a less number of them is said
to have really any sort of claim to the title. On the other
hand, there are several colleges which, though bearing that
more modest name, are really entitled to be called univer-
sities. And then again there are seminaries and institutes
which would seem, from their extent and high character,
to be worthy of being called colleges. The precise mean-
ing of the term university is a universal school, in which
are taught all branches of learning, or the four faculties of
theology, medicine, law, and the sciences and arts ; a
college is a school incorporated for purposes of instruction,
where the students may acquire a knowledge of the lan-
guages and sciences; the idea of a seminary or an academy
is allied to that of a college, only that the former are more
especially designed for a younger class of students ; and an
institute is a literary or philosophical society, formed by
persons for their mutual instruction and advantage in all
matters connected w^ith intellectual culture. The so-called
universities of America number one hundred, while the
other collegiate institutions are about equally divided
between the three remaining classes. To give an account
of all is, of course, not to be expected in this paper, but the
reader may obtain a general idea of their character by
glancing at a few of the more influential and prominent
institutions.

Harvard College, located at Cambridge, in Massachu-
setts, and founded in. 1636, is the oldest institution of

EDUCATIOXAL LIFE AXD IXSTITUTIOXS. 277

learning in America. It has twenty-eight professors and
about five hundred students ; and although it has hitherto
had a Liberal divinity school, arrangements have recently
been made for incorporating in it an "Episcopal Theologi-
cal School." It has a Law department, with three profes-
sors; a Medical department, with eleven professors; a
School of Astronomy, with two professors; a Dental School,
with seven professors ; a Museum of Zoology, w^itli lectures
by four professors; and the Lawrence Scientific School,
and School of Mining and Practical Geology, with seven
professors. Its general and special libraries comprise one
hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and its scientific col-
lections are extensive and of great value. It is managed
by one president, five fellows, and one treasurer, and by
thirty overseers chosen by the State Legislature ; its en-
dowment fund, derived from numerous individuals and
corporations, and independent of the college grounds,
buildings, libraries, and collections, is somewhat over two
millions of dollars; and its annual income is about one
hundred and eighty thousand dollars. The term of study
in the law school is two years; in the divinity school
three; and candidates for the degree of doctor of medicine
must have studied three years, and attended two courses
of lectures.

The next oldest institution of learning in America is
Yale College, founded at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1700.
It has about sixty professors, and usually seven hundred
students. Besides an academical department, it has five
others, devoted to philosophy, theology, law, medicine,
and the fine arts. Its miscellaneous collections are exten-
sive and very valuable, and its libraries comprise about

278 LIFE AKD EESOUECES IK AMERICA.

eighty-five thousand volumes. The total amount of its
funds available for the support of the college is something
over one million of dollars. This college differs from
Harvard chiefly in the constitution of its department of
philosophy and the arts, which has come to be known as
the Sheflield Scientific School. Candidates for admission
are obliged to be sixteen years of age, and to undergo a
twofold examination, first in mathematical studies, and
secondly in elementary literary studies. The charge for
tuition is one hundred and twenty-five dollars, but students
of chemistry have to pay an additional sum of seventy-five
dollars. The term of study in each of the courses is three
years ; and in the divinity school no charge is made for
tuition.

Another college of note and influence is Columbia
College, founded in the city of New York in 1754, but
prior to 1787 it was known as King's College. Its funds,
derived chiefly from donations, amount to two millions of
dollars ; its professors about fifty, and the usual number of
students is nine hundred. It has four departments, devoted
to Letters and Science, Mines, Law, and Medicine. The
charges for tuition range from one hundred to one hundred
and sixty dollars per annum ; several societies and muni-
cipal corporations are entitled to several scholarships free
of charge ; every religious denomination in the city of
Kew York is entitled always to have one student free of
all charges for tuition; and every school from which there
shall be admitted four matriculants in any year, is also
allowed to send one pupil free of charge.

The College of New Jersey, located at Princeton, is
another of the venerable institutions of the United States.

EDUCATIONAL LIPE AKD lis'STITUTIONS. 279

It was founded in 1746; has about twenty professors, and
nearly three hundred students; is supported by the Pres-
byterians, and has educated nearly nine hundred men for
the ministry ; charges a tuition fee of seventy dollars ; and
has a choice library of twenty-five thousand volumes. In
Georgetown, District of Columbia, there is a Roman Cath-
olic College, founded in 1792, with twenty professors, two
hundred students, and a library of thirty thousand volumes ;
in Brunswick, Maine, is located Bowdoin College, founded
in 1802, and possessing a library of thirty-seven thousand
volumes; in New Hampshire they have Dartmouth Col-
lege, founded in 1769, supported by the Congregational-
ists, and with thirty-eight thousand volumes in its library;
in Pennsylvania, Dickinson College, founded in 1783, sup-
ported by the Methodists, and with twenty-five thousand
volumes ; in Rhode Island, Brown University, founded in
1764, supjDorted by the Baptists, and having a library of
thirty-eight thousand volumes; and in Virginia, a State
University, founded in 1819, with thirty-five thousand vol-
umes. But there are several institutions, which have more
recently been founded, and which are growing with great
rapidity and exercising a paramount influence in the edu-
cational world, viz.: the Universities of Michigan, Ken-
tucky, and Illinois, and the Cornell University in New
York. But there is another institution which deserves
special mention, because of its extent and peculiar charac-
ter, viz.: Vassar College, located at Poughkeepsie, New
York. It was founded in 1861, through the liberality of
one man, Matthew Yassar, and is wliolly devoted to the
education of women. The buildings are extensive and
beautiful ; the school oflers the highest educational facili-

280 LIFE AXD EES0UKCE3 I^?" AMERICA.

ties to females at moderate expense, and admits as bene-
ficiaries those who are unable to pay even that expense.
Special attention is devoted to the fine arts, and it has a
corps of instructors in the English language and literature,
the modern languages of Europe and their literature, an-
cient languages, mathematics, all the branches of natural
science, including anatomy, physiology, hygiene, intel-
lectual and moral philosophy, political economy and the
science of government, domestic economy, and the study
of the Scriptures, without sectarianism.

Notwithstanding the fact that the educational records
of the United States are very complete, and the amount
of money annually expended in the cause is very large,
it would seem that the requirements of the age and of
America have not as yet by any means been attained. An
American writer, in an elaborate report on this subject,
published at the oSTational expense, has summed up his
opinions in a single paragraph, as follows : To tell the
plain truth, he says, the very best of our many universities
are but sorry skeletons of the well-developed and shapely
institutions they ought to be and must become, before they
will be fairly entitled to rank among the foremost univer-
sities of even this jDresent day. And if we are not content
always to suffer the contempt of European scholars, who
properly enough regard us as a very clever, but also a very
uncultured, people, it is time that all true lovers of learn-
ing, as well as all who desire the highest prosperity and
glory of America, should awake to the importance of at
once providing the means of a profounder, broader, and
higher culture in every department of human learning.

As the education of women is a subject which possesses

EDUCATIOis^AL LIFE AKD lis'STITUTIOis'S. 281

a peculiar interest for the people of Japan, we here sub-
mit a few observations in that connection. In America,
females possess precisely the same advantages for educa-
tion that are possessed by the males. Boys and girls are
admitted to the same schools ; and the gentle influences
of the latter are counterbalanced by the elevating influ-
ences of the former, whereby it is thought that both classes
are improved. At the same time, there are thousands of
schools in which the two sexes are instructed separately.
The idea is universal that the women of the country are
capable of receiving, and should receive, the highest kind
of education ; and as to the question of their right to take
part in politics, by voting, which has been extensively dis-
cussed in America, it seems to be one of those problems
which the future alone can establish. The important part
which the women of America take in educational afi"airs
is shown by the following facts, — that they are educated
at the IsTormal schools for the express purpose of becoming
teachers, — that they ofiiciate as teachers in thousands of the
common-schools,— that seminaries for the education of
young ladies are to be found in every part of the country,^
that they are admitted into several of the American col-
leges as regular students, and that a number of institutions
of the highest character are exclusively devoted to the
education of women, the most extensive and interesting,
Yassar College, having already been mentioned. Not only
are the libraries of the country regularly visited and used by
ladies (in some of which they are employed as librarians),
but in the leading cities are to be found libraries and read-
ing-rooms designed for their use exclusively, and all of
them in harmony with the idea of American civilization.

LITEEAET, AETISTIC, AH"D SOIEl^-
TIFIO LIFE.

Under the head of literary life, we propose to submit
some information on the book-publishing and neAVspaper
interests of the United States. When an author lias written
a book, whether large or small, and desires to profit by its
publication, he is obliged to take out a copyright, by
which the Government promises to protect his rights, for
a term of ^-ears, in the profits of the work, as his own prop-
erty. The document in question is issued under the law
by the Librarian of Congress, and two copies of every book
or pamphlet published have to be deposited in the National
Library, whereby the collection of volumes belonging to
the Government is annually increased to a, large extent.
The books printed and the authors who write them are so
numerous, that it would be quite impossible even to name
them in this place. The best and most comprehensive
work ever published on the authors who have v\^ritten in
the English language, was written by an American, named
S. Austin Allibone ; it is called a " Dictionary of Authors,"
and contains the names of not less than forty-six thousand
authors, with an account of their publications.

As to the subjects upon which books are written, they
are, of course, very numerous, the general heads under which

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AND SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 283

they are arranged being as follows : theology and religion,
poetry, history, biography, geography and travels, pliiloso-
phy, science, social reform, school-books, useful and fine
arts, fiction, literature, miscellaneous books, republications
and translations from foreign authors. With many men,
as well as women, the writing of boo]is is a special business ;
and then again there are thousands of books written merely
as a pastime by their authors, or from motives of personal
vanity ; generally speaking, the writers do not find the
business profitable ; but then again, there are authors who
make a great deal of money by writing — especially is this
the case with school-books, novels, and national histories.
The men who print and sell the books which are written,
are called publishers, and in all the principal cities are to
be found establishments which do business on a very large
scale. Some of them give employment to large numbers
of people, such as writers, paper-makers, printers, binders,
artists of various kinds, and machinists, as well as clerks
and common workmen, and not a few have acquired very
large fortunes by this branch of industry. They usually
sell books by the quantity alone, and the retail merchants
who purchase of them are to be found in every tov/n and
village in the whole land. When an author has written a
book, he either sells his copyright to the publisher for a
specific sum of money, after which he has nothing to do
w^ith his work, or else he allows the publisher the privilege
of printing and selling his book, charging for the same a
certain per centum on the price of each volume, retaining
the ownership of the work in his own name. While many
of the books published are so interesting or valuable as to
be purchased by everybody interested in the subject, very

284 LIFE A^D RESOURCES IK AMERICA.

many of them can only be sold by means of extravagant
notices in the newspapers, and hence the custom prevails
of sending most of all the new books to the newspapers,
which pretend to give impartial notices, but often do the
very reverse. The custom of readhig books among the
people of America is almost universal, far more so, it is said,
than is the case in England or France ; and in every home,
from that of the rich merchant down to the poorest farmer,
may generally be found such collections of books as they
desire or can afford to buy. And for those who cannot
afford to purchase all they may wish to read, in the cities
and towns everywhere they have circulating libraries,
Avhere, for a small consideration, books may be read, or
borrowed, to be read at home. In most of the leading
cities collections of this sort have been established which
are very extensive and valuable. The good which these
libraries accomplish, by furnishing the people with informa-
tion on every conceivable subject, cannot be estimated; —
the money which some of them have cost would reach
-$1,000,000; and the largest in the countr}^, wliich is called
the National Library, and located in Washington City,
contains not less than 200,000 volumes, and is entirely free
to all who may desire to consult its treasures. In 1860,
there were 27,730 libraries in the country, in which were
collected nearly 14,000,000 of volumes.

But the most striking feature connected with the litera-
ture of America, is the universal circulation of newspapers
and magazines, which are read by all classes of the people,
and so conducted as to form, to a great extent, a substi-
tute for books. According to the latest accounts, the
whole number of periodicals issued in the United States

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AXD SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 285

and its Territories, is 6,056 ; of these 637 are published
daily, 118 tri-weekly, 129 semi-weekly, 4,642 weekly,
21 bi-weekly, 100 semi-monthly, Vlo monthly, 14 bi-
monthly, and 62 are issued quarterly. Of this large num-
ber it is estimated that about four-fifths are political jour-
nals, the remainder being religious or literar}^ It is
through these numerous publications that the mind of the
nation is chiefly expressed, and its intellectual pulse may
generally be measured by the success of the several journals.
While very many of these have a circulation which is
confined to their particular religious sect or political party,
there are a few whose circulation is immense, and their
influence proportionably extensive. For example, there is
one weekly paper published in New York, which has a
circulation of 175,000, and if we estimate that each paper
is read by five persons, which is not unlikely, we perceive
that each issue has the teaching of 875,000 minds; and
then again, there are some daily papers which issue every
morning from 100,000 to 200,000 cojDies. As far back as
1860, it was estimated that the circulation of the news-
papers alone amounted to 100,000,000. Hence we per-
ceive that the power of the Press is enormous, and it is a
matter of the utmost importance that it should be con-
ducted with honesty and wisdom. That portion of it
which comes under the head of newspapers is by far the
most profitable, so far as making money is concerned, but
the profit does not come from selling the paper alone. In
all of them certain columns or pages are filled up with
advertisements, and as these are paid for on liberal terms,
they become a source of profit. The ownership of these
papers is generally vested in a company of men, who are

2S6 LIFE AXD RESOURCES liT AMERICA.

the printers and publishers ; and as some of these great
establishments send forth books, as well as newspapers and
periodicals, we can only obtain an idea of the extent of
their business by resorting to figures. According to the
latest published statements the capital invested in print-
ing and publishing is about $20,000, 000; cost of raw
material used, $13,000,000; cost of labor, per annum,
about $8,000,000; number of hands employed, more than
20,000 ; and the A'alue of books, periodicals, and daily
journals, nearly $32,000,000. With tliese figures before
us, we cannot wonder that what is called the Press of
America should be considered an element of almost incal-
culable power. As has well been said, it records with
fidelity the proceedings of Congress, of all State and Ter-
ritorial legislatures, and of judicial tribunals, holds the
pulpit to a just responsibility, reviews the doings of busi-
ness and social life, and watches with sleepless vigilance
over the concerns of the people. It is the great repre-
sentative of the people ; a conservative power held by them
to guard both public and industrial liberty; reflecting
their opinions and judgments in all matters respecting the
public weal ; exposing Avrong, and vindicating and en-
courao^ino; the rio-ht.

In writing for the newspapers of America, many of the
ablest men are employed, and the leading writer for each
journal is called an editor. He is frequently the sole pro-
prietor, sometimes only owns a few shares in the enterprise,
and then again he may be hired to perform a specific editorial
duty. He is responsible for the opinions expressed, and
when necessary, as is always the case in the larger establish-
ments, he is assisted in his labors by sub-editors, who look

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AXD SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 287

after all matters connected with commerce or literature ;
by reporters, who prepare the proceedings of public assem-
blies ; and by correspondents, who furnish information on
every subject of public interest. Weekly papers are com-
monly published on Saturday of each week, and daily
papers in the morning or evening ; and as most of the
latest news is received through the telegraph, it is fre-
quently the case that an evening paper will imblish infor-
mation of an event which may have taken place in Europe
on the morning of the same day. With regard to what is
called the liberty of the press, in times of peace, it is quite
unbounded ; so much so, indeed, that the rights of private
citizens are not always respected ; but while an editor may
not be interfered with by the government for expressing his
opinions, provided they are not immoral, it is too often the
case that his real independence is materially aifected by the
allurements or dictation of the political party to which he
belongs. And then again, the habit of dealing in person-
alities is perhaps more prevalent among the newspaper writ-
ers of America than among any other people ; the excess-
es in this direction sometimes lead to bitter conflicts and
even to untimely deaths ; but it is certain that all the more
notorious abuses of the press are frowned upon by the bet-
ter classes in every community. Notwithstanding its
many drawbacks, the conclusion is inevitable, that the Press
of America is the leading civilizer of its multifarious pop-
ulation, and the particular engine which has brought about
the present prosperous condition of the Republic.

Our next topic for consideration is the artistic life of
America, as we find it developed in the pursuits of paint-
ing, sculpture, and architecture. The number of persons

288 LIFE AXD EESOUECES liq" AMERICA.

engaged in these various employments is not large, but they
are necessarily men of culture ; exert a great influence in
developing the taste of the people generally ; and they con-
gregate and find employment chiefly in the larger cities.
The painters are of several kinds, viz. : portrait painters,
historical painters, landscape painters, and various subor-
dinate classes who produce miscellaneous pictures. The
materials most commonly used are oil-colors and canvas ;
and while the majority of these artists manage to support
themselves in comfort, those who liappen to become fashion-
able, or possess extraordinary ability, frequently meet with
great success. While it is true that good portraits may be
obtained for fifty or one hundred dollars, it is also true that
five thousand dollars is not an uncommon price for very
superior portraits ; and, according to circumstances, the
prices paid for pictures of scenery range from fifty dollars
to ten thousand dollars. In these two departments, the
American artists are perhaps equal to those of Europe ; — but
with regard to historical paintings, the English, French, and
German artists are all in advance of the Americans. Gener-
ally speaking, before a man can become expert in the art
of painting, he has to acquire a knowledge of drawing, and
this study has come to be so common and popular that
many artists confine themselves to drawing alone, and hence
the kind of pictures known as engravings, which are merely
copies of drawings, as well as paintings, have almost a uni-
versal circulation. They are executed on steel, on copper,
on stone, and on wood, and used extensively in books, and
weekly and monthly periodicals. To what extent this is
true, is shown by the fact that a single illustrated journal,
published in New York, is said to have a circulation of

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AITD SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 289

three hundred thousand copies. And then again, large num-
bers of engravings are prepared and published, which are
used for the adornment of the houses of the people, as is
the case with paintings, as well as photographs, and chromo-
lithographs, which latter classes of pictures have come to
be more popular than any others. The custom of hanging
jDictures on the walls of the houses is a leading characteristic
among the Americans ; and while the poor mechanic or farm-
er may be content with a few cheap engravings or photo-
graphs, men of wealth are very much in the habit of spend-
ino- thousands upon thousands of dollars for works of art
of the highest order. Many of the private collections thus
formed are really of a princely character; and then, in all
the leading cities, they have extensive public collections of
pictures, with which are commonly associated certain
schools for imparting a practical knowledge of the fine arts.
The extent to which the General Government patronizes
the art of painting is limited to a few historical produc-
tions, including compositions and portraits, to be found
in the Capitol and Executive Mansion.

As the art of sculpture is far less popular among the peo-
ple than that of painting, we find the sculptors reduced to
a small number. Among them, however, are to be found
some few men of great abilities and extensive reputations.
It is claimed, indeed, that the United States has gained, in
sculpture, a far higher rank than in any of the fine arts.
The works here produced are generally executed in white
marble, though sometimes in bronze, and in the great ma-
jority of instances represent the busts or full-length figures
of distinguished men. This style of art is always expensive,
and it is only the rich who can afford to perpetuate the

13

290 LIFE AKD KESOUECES 11^ AMERICA.

features of their family-friends in this manner. When in-
tended for exhibition in private dwelUngs, or in galleries of
art, these productions are usually of the size of life, but
when intended for the adornment of private gardens or
public grounds, they are of colossal size, and noted military
men are occasionally represented mounted on horses. The
chief patrons of this kind of art are the National and State
Governments, and hence busts and statues are to be found
stationed, to some extent, in the public buildings in Wash-
ington, and in the capitals of the several States. In the
National Capitol a large and handsome hall has been appro-
priated entirely to the reception of busts and statues of cel-
ebrated statesmen, and military and naval commanders ; —
and in this connection, a law has been passed, granting the
privilege to each State in the Union, to send to this central
exhibition-place, a portrait, in marble, of any two men
which the State authorities may choose to honor in this
manner. When copies of marble or bronze productions
are desired by private individuals, and the means of the per-
son wanting them are limited, it is frequently the case that
a kind of white plaster is used as a substitute for the more
enduring materials ; and this composition is employed, to a
great extent, in reproducing the ancient and more celebrated
works of sculpture in Europe, which are brought to Amer-
ica to serve as models in the art-schools of the country.

We come now to speak of what has been done in the Uni-
ted States in the way of architecture. In the early years of the
country the abundance of wood, and the ease of preparing
it, made it the universal building material, and for a long
time hardly anything else was used ; although for buildings
of importance brick was brought from England. The haste

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AND SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 291

to get shelter, and the availability of wood, make this still
the common material — almost the only one used — in the
new cities of the Western States and Territories. The re-
cent terrible fire at Chicago is an illustration, in part, of
this fact, and of the evils of building with wood alone. But
within the present century much brick has been made, and
stone-quarries have been opened all over the country. In
the older cities, brick and stone, in connection with iron, are
now almost entirely employed, certain varieties of stone
being used for all the most important buildings. The New
England States furnish a great deal of granite and sienite,
which are very strong and durable stones, but too hard
and rough for finely cut or ornamental work. There is
much sandstone in the Middle States, and in the West are
many kinds of sand and limestone, which are easily cut, and
receive readily the richest ornamentation. There is also
throughout the United States a great variety of white and
colored marbles, much used in ornamental and decorative
work; and many elaborate buildings are built of them.

Before the present century architects were few in Amer-
ica and of little skill; buildings were designed, for the
most part, by the men who built them. But the gain of
the community in wealth and leisure has greatly developed
the profession in the present generation. The earlier archi-
tects worked only by English traditions, which were, in
their turn, derived from the Italian architects of the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The earlier architects
of this country usually obtained their professional educa-
tion in Europe, where the advantages were numerous ; at
the present time, however, young Americans find excellent
opportunities in the oiEces of the better-trained architects

292 LIFE AND RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

at home. The multiplication of prints, photographs, and
casts in plaster from the best old examples, have greatly
facilitated study ; schools of architecture have been estab-
lished in several of the educational institutions of the
country ; and in New York they have an American Insti-
tute of Architects, which is represented in all the leading
cities of the country by what they call "Chapters," and
which are said to exercise an important influence within
their proper sphere. The styles of architecture employed
in America are as various as possible, but perhaps the kind
of buildings in which the United States architects are most
successful is that of wooden villas, which are often both
beautiful and convenient. It has been charged against the
Americans, that in regard to architecture, if nothing else,
they lay more stress upon the idea of a conventional beauty,
•than upon substantial usefulness. A church may be beau-
tiful to the eye, but filled with uncomfortable seats and a
perpetual darkness ; a public building may be very orna-
mental, but badly ventilated ; and a dwelling may appear
like a palace, and in reality be Avithout a single comfort.
Notwithstanding the immense amounts of money which
are annually expended in America upon fine buildings, it is
claimed that there is much room for improvement ; and it
is a creditable truth, that a great impetus has recently
been given to the art of architecture by the patronage of
the General Government, whose buildings are numerous,
and among the most extensive and imposing in the Repub-
lic. In this connection, one fact which seems amazing, and
is, indeed, a subject of remark, is this : that there now stands,
in the city of Washington, a monument to the memory of
Georo-e Washington, who is called the Father of his Coun-

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AND SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 293

try, which was commenced a quarter of a century ago, and
is yet unfinished, and a painful spectacle to all the world.

We come now to speak of science in America, but before
doing so it may be proper to make some remarks in regard
to science in general. The term science, in its more
restricted sense, is a knowledge of the laws of nature, or
how the changes in the natural world are produced. In a
more general sense, it is used to include descriptive natural
history, from which it differs in this, that the latter
classifies and describes things or objects in nature, as they
exist, without considering their origin or the changes to
which they are subjected. Science, then, although founded
on the results of experiments and observations, does not
consist in collections of isolated facts, but in general
principles, from which special facts can be deduced when
certain conditions are known. Thus, the phenomena of
astronomy are all referred to principles which are denomi-
nated the laws of force and motion. By means of these
laws, if the relative mass, position, and velocity of the
heavenly bodies are known at a given epoch, their relative
position for all times, in the remotest past as w^ell as in the
distant future, can be calculated. Other phenomena are
referred to other laws, such as those of light, heat, electric-
ity, navigation, chemical action, life, and organization.
These laws are generally expressed in the form of theories,
by which they can be more readily understood and applied,
either in the way of practical inventions, or in the discovery
of new truths. The knowledge of a law of nature enables
the savant to explain, predict, and in some cases to control
the phenomena to which these laws pertain. These
characteristics of science afford the means of clearly dis-

294 LIFE AND KESOUKCES IIT AMERICA.

tino:nisliing between the expressions of real truths or laws,
and the mere vague speculations with which the principles
of science are often confounded. It is by the discovery
and application of these laws that modern civilization differs
essentially from that of ancient times, and also from the
civilization of China and Japan. In these countries the
arts of life are based upon facts accidentally discovered,
which lie, as it were, on the face of nature, are few in
number, and soon exhausted ; while in Europe and North
America the various inventions which add so much to the
material well-being of man are derived from the endless
stores of facts deduced from scientific principles. It is by
a knowledge of the law of gravitation, heat, electricity, and
chemical action, that these powers are rendered obedient
and efficient slaves, by which . man emancipates himself
from the bondage of brute labors, to which in ancient
times he was universally subjected ; while, by a knowledge
of the laws of light and of sound, the infirmities of age are
remedied, and the range of human senses indefinitely
extended. By the constant study of the phenomena of
nature, irrespective of the use which may flow from them,
our knowledge is continually increased, while from the
discovery of every new principle in science many aj^plica-
tions in art usually follow. It is this which is understood
by the Baconian aphorism — "Knowledge is power."
There are at the present time, in all parts of the civilized
world, men who are devoting their thoughts and time to
the investigations of the various phenomena of nature; and
through the intercourse which is established between all
parts of the world, the discoveries made by each become
the knowledge of all, and in this way science is rapidly

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AJq^D SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 295

increasing. Moreover, whatever is discovered in one
portion of the domain of nature, as a general rule, tends to
reflect light on various other portions, and also to furnish
instruments for more extended and varied research.

It is evident, from the foregoing remarks, that the
country is most highly civilized, — at least in one direction,
— which makes the best provision for the investigation of
abstract science. Of all nations at j^resent existing, Prussia
appears to be the most advanced in this respect. When-
ever an individual is found capable of making original dis-
coveries, in that country, he is at once consecrated to
science. He is elected a higher professor in one of the
universities, receives a liberal salary, is supplied with all
the implements necessary for research in his special line,
and is allowed full time for his investigations ; being re-
quired to give but few lectures on higher subjects, while
the teaching and the drilling of pupils are performed by
men of inferior talents. In the United States, where so
much is to be done in the way of subduing nature and
developing the resources of a new country, there has been,
consequently, a great demand for the application of
science, and less attention has been given, until of late,
to encourage and sustain original invention.

One effect of the general diffusion of education in the
United States, especially in New England, has been to ren-
der the people impatient as to mere manual labor, and
hence, from the scarcity of laborers, and the great demand
for them, a large amount of talent has been devoted to the
invention of labor-saving machines. There are no people
in the world who make so many inventions as the Ameri-
cans, which fact is evinced by the number and variety of

296 LIFE AKD EESOURCES liT AMERICA.

models in the Patent Office. There is, liowever, a growing
inclination on the part of the Government and of wealthy
individuals to endow establishments for the advance of
pure science. The Government has established the National
Observatory, which is supported at an annual expense of
not less than seventy-five thousand dollars, and in which
the motions of the heavenly bodies are continuously stud-
ied, new facts observed, and new deductions from them
constantly made. There has also been established a
Bureau for the calculation of a Nautical Almanac, the
object of which is to furnish mariners with the means for
determining their position on the ocean, while it also con-
tributes to the advance of science by original mathemati-
cal deductions from facts which have been observed. An
extended work called the Coast Survey has likewise been
established, the object of which is to furnish accurate
maps, by means of astronomical determinations, of the
whole coast of the country, but which also is developing,
in its operations, new facts of the highest interest to science.
Among those are the laws of the variation, direction, and
intensity of terrestrial magnetism — the form and dimensions
of the earth — the variation of the force of terrestrial gravi-
tation on the different portions of the earth's surface — the
knowledge of organized beings which live at the bottom
of the ocean, within soundings— and temperature, motion,
and magnitude of the Gulf Stream, which, in passing
across the Atlantic ocean, moderates the temperature, and
gives a genial climate to the north of Europe. Another of
the Government establishments which advances science is
the office of Weights and Measures, in which a series of
investigations are carried on, for determining the expansion

LITERARY, ARTISTIC, AKD SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 297

of bodies and the best manner of making accurate stand-
ards of measure, of length, weight, and capacity. The
Goveniment also has its schools of applied science; one
at West Point, for the education of officers of the army in
all things pertaining to military life and operations ; and
another at Annapolis, for the education of naval officers
in all matters connected with the naval service. Of late
years, moreover, numerous surveys and explorations have
been made at the expense of the Government, across the
Continent, which have tended, not only to develop the
resources of the country, but have afforded means for the
critical study of the geology, mineralogy, and natural his-
tory of the regions traversed, and which have resulted in
the construction of the celebrated railroad between the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In many of the older States
of the Union there have been instituted geological sur-
veys, which, while they have served to discover the pecu-
liar mineral treasures within the State limits, have greatly
added to the science of geology as well as to natural
history. The ostensible object of all these establishments
of the General Government, as well as those of the sepa-
rate States, is practical utility, although abstract science is
greatly advanced by means of them.

In various parts of the country astronomical observa-
tories have been erected in connection with some of the
principal universities and colleges, but in them, with but
few exceptions, original investigations are subordinate to
the business of education. There are also connected with
the higher institutions of learning, scientific schools, the
object of which is generally to teach the principles of
science, as far as they are applicable to civil and mining en-

13*

298 LIFE AKD RESOURCES IX AMERICA.

gineering, and the various manufactures which depend
upon a knowledge of chemistry and physics. The pro-
fessors in universities and colleges are the principal con-
tributors to the scientific journals of the day, in which the
progress of science is recorded. There is no civilized coun-
try in which there appears to be a greater taste for a
knowledge of general scientific results, or in which a greater
number of popular scientific works are read than in the
United States. At the same time, there is scarcely any
country in which original talents, applied to pure scientific
investigation, meet with less reward. In France and other
European countries there are Academies of Science, con-
sisting of a limited number of the most distinguished
individuals, and supported by Government, each member
receiving a salary, besides marks of social distinction. To
become a member of one of these academies is an object of
the highest ambition, to which is directed the best mind
of the community. In Great Britain there are no such
academies, yet the Government makes yearly grants for
scientific investigations ; and individuals, distinguished for
their scientific discoveries, not only receive pensions, but
are honored by the titles of barons and knights. No ade-
quate inducements are yet held out in the United States,
as a stimulus to scientific investigation, but for scientific
invention or the application of science to useful arts, there
is frequently an abundant remuneration. Notwithstanding
these drawbacks, much has been done and is doing, in the
way of advancing science, as is evinced by the transactions
of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences of Boston,
the publications of the Smithsonian Institution, and of the

LITEEARY, AKTISTIC, AKD SCIENTIFIC LIFE. 299

Natural History Societies and Academies of Boston, Salem,
Philadelphia, Chicago, San Francisco, and New Orleans.
All these institutions were established and are sustained by-
private individuals. To the above may be added the Amer-
ican Journal of Science in New Haven, and the Journal of
the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia.

A large portion of the scientific labor of the United
States has been devoted to descriptive natural history, to
which attention was invited by the almost unbounded field
which was presented for study in the mineral, vegetable,
and animal kingdoms, and because a knowledge derived
from these was intimately connected with the development
of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Science
should, however, be studied for its own sake, without re-
gard to its immediate application, since nothing tends more
to extend the bounds of thought, to add to the intellectual
powers of man, and to raise him in the scale of intelligence,
than the study and contemplation of the operations of
nature ; and we are happy to think that, as we have said
before, there is in this great country a growing apprecia-
tion of the importance of abstract science, and that many
institutions in various parts of it will be established, through
the enlightened policy of wealthy individuals, for its culti-
vation and advancement. A conspicuous example of what
has been done in this line is the Smithsonian Institution,
founded in Washington by James Smithson, of England,
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.
The founder was devoted to scientific investigation, and,
under the impulse of his ruling passion, bequeathed his
entire property for a similar purpose. It is as yet the only
well-endowed institution in America which is intended

300 LIFE AKD KESOUKCES li^ AMERICA.

exclusively for the advancement of abstract science. But
through the influence which it has attained by the perse-
vering efibrt of its director, Prof. Joseph Henry, and the
example which it has set, it is thought that other institu-
tions of a similar character will be founded. Indeed, sev-
eral wealthy individuals have already, independently of
each other, made appropriations for scientific investigations.
Foremost among these in liberality, and more especially as
a man of science, may be mentioned Prof A. D. Bache, the
late Superintendent of the Coast Survey, who left the sum
of fifty thousand dollars for scientific experiments and
observations, the first proceeds of which are now being
devoted to a magnetic survey of the United States, the
results of which will be published and distributed to all
parts of the world.

LIFE AMOJSTG THE MIE'EES.

It is now generally acknowledged that the mineral re-
sources of the United States are more extensive and varied
than those of any other country in the world. Indeed, to
give anything like a minute account of them would fill
many volumes ; and therefore, with a view of being brief,
we propose to submit a few facts on the leading mineral
productions of the country, beginning with the precious
metals.

Gold has been found in about one-half of the States of
the Union. Prior to the year 1848 this metal, as well as
silver, was chiefly obtained from Virginia, Tennessee, the
Carolinas, and Georgia ; at the present time the States of
California, Oregon, and Nevada, and the Territories of
Washington, Idaho, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Mon-
tana, Dakota, and Wyoming, are by far the most produc-
tive gold-fields on the globe ; and throughout all this re-
gion many other valuable minerals are found, but silver
is the most important. At the time of the great discover-
ies in California, the annual production of the whole
world was only $20,000,000, but in seven years from
that time, California alone yielded $60,000,000, and its
recent annual production has been fixed at $80,000,000.
The total gold and silver product of the United States,
down to the year 1868, was estimated at $1,255,000,000,
and never before in the history of the world have

302 LI"FE AKD EESOURCES lis" AMERICA.

SO few people established so extensive a business.
The resrion where gold is found covers an area of
1,000,C00 square miles, and is chiefly the property of
the nation. Hand-washing, as we have been informed by
a man of experience in these matters, was the earliest mode
of collecting gold, and the pan and the rocker were the
first implements used in California mining. Quicksilver
was soon employed to collect the fine particles, often lost
in hand-washing. Hydraulic mining, now largely used in
California, is done by throwing currents of water, from
hose and pipes, with enormous force against banks of earth,
cutting away whole hills. Down the face of the hills, also,
pour artificial streams. At the foot, the waters all pass
away in long flumes or wooden troughs, carrying the earth
and stones with them. Slats on the bottom of the flumes
catch and retain the gold ; and where gold is found in hard
quartz, the stones are ground to powder by machinery
and stamp-mills, and the gold thus conies to the light, and
quicksilver separates it from the dust. Silver is never
found like gold, in grains among the sand, but in ores or
quartz, from which it has to be reduced by stamping or
grinding, or by smelting. It is found in a variety of ores,
usually associated with gold, copper, or lead. Pure masses
are occasionally found among the copper mines of Lake
Superior, and also in Nevada and Idaho. The discovery
of the rich deposits of gold and silver in California gave
new impetus to the movements of population everywhere,
stimulated all departments of industry, brought together
into the same communities people from every part of the
globe, settled the vast territories of the United States,
facilitated intercourse between the nations, and, with the

LIFE AMOXG THE MIXERS. 303

mining operations in Australia, has steadily changed val-
ues throughout the world.

But, notwithstanding the immense amount of treasure
that has been taken from the soils and rocks of California
and other Pacific States, the business of mining has not
been profitable with the majority of miners. Indeed, it is
said that during the last fifteen years, the farmers of Illinois
have more frequently made fortunes than have the gold-
hunters of the West. In 1865 a miner of California named
Jules Fricot realized the sum of $182,511 by quartz min-
infj, and since then a man named James P. Pierce, from
placer mine obtained in one year the sum of $102,011, —
but these were exceptional cases. The cost of living at
the mines is always expensive, and the accommodations
anything but comfortable. At the general eating-houses
which are established among the mines, they commonly
charge one dollar for a single meal, and twelve dollars per
w^eek for board, — the sleeping accommodations being a
bare floor and a pair of blankets. According to the
latest authentic data, the number of miners in California
alone was 46,550, of whom 20,800 were Chinese, and the
wages of these men ranged from three to five dollars per
day. The national laws bearing upon the mining region
of the Pacific Slope are not, as yet, what they should be ;
but those which have been enacted provide for two classes
of miners, — those who are licensed to work upon the public
domain, and those who become actual proprietors by pur-
chase from the Government. The right is also granted
to men, to purchase and work such mines as they may dis-
cover; and as to the mining customs, — mandatory edicts
are passed, at twenty-four hours' notice, by from five to

304 LIFE AKD EESOURCES IN AMERICA.

five hundred men, which, for the time being, are the law
of the land.

And now, in closing these remarks, let us glance at what
has been said in regard to the distribution of the precious
metals. The drain of them has hitherto been toward the
East, where they are used for hoarding and for ornaments,
rather than for money. This is particularly true of silver.
Between the years 1850 and 1864, there were exported to
Asia from England and the Mediterranean, more than
$650,000,000. The total amount of silver in the world is
estimated at 810,000,000,000, or only enough to pay the
debts of three or four of the leading nations of the present
time. The coining of gold and silver, as well as copper,
was commenced by the United States in 1793, and the
total product of each metal, down to the middle of 1870,
was as follows : Gold, $971,628,046 ; silver, $143,760,474;
copper, $11,009,048; or a grand total of $1,126,397,569.

Of the baser metals which have hitherto been employed
in the coining of money, copper is the most important.
Its most valuable alloy is brass, out of which a very large
number of useful things are manufactured. Another alloy,
known as "French gold," is extensively used in the manu-
facture of cheap jewelry and watches. Copper is found in
ores and in a metallic state, and was first mined on the
American Continent in New England. It has been worked
in seven or eight of the United States, but, practically, all
the copper product of the Union comes from Lake Supe-
rior, which was almost an unknown wilderness as late as
the year 1843. It is found in a ridge of trap-rock, on the
shores belonging to Michigan, and masses of the solid
metal have been discovered weighing several tons. The

LIFE AMOXG THE MIXERS. 305

mines were opened there in 1845, since which time the
total yield has been not fiir from 150,000 tons. It is
extracted from its ores by smelting and calcination, and
prepared for the market in ingots, which are converted
into sheets by rolling mills, established chiefly in tlie
Atlantic States. Situated as are the copper mines of
Michigan, in a region where the winters are long and the
summers short, the miners are subject to many hardships
from the cold, and to many privations in the way of bodily
comforts. A large proportion of them are men who have
had experience in the mines of Great Britain and other
countries, and their compensation is not on a par with
their habits of industry and their experience, but the quan-
tity of metal which they obtain from the earth and send to
market is very large.

Next in importance to the precious metals, come the
coal productions of the United States, the two prominent
varieties of which bear the names of anthracite and bitu-
minous. The largest producer of both is the State of
Pennsylvania; and in the production of the former, Rhode
Island stands second ; and Ohio occupies the second posi-
tion in regard to bituminous coal. The area of workable
coal-beds in the United States, excluding Alaska, is esti-
mated at 200,000 square miles, which is said to be eight
times as large as the available coal area of all the rest of
the world. The coal-veins are usually reached by vertical
shafts, but w^hen found in hills are worked by horizontal
galleries. Notwithstanding the fact that perpendicular
shafts are employed to secure thorough ventilation, and
safety-lamps are used to prevent the ignition of the fatal
fire-damp, many serious accidents have happened in the

306 LIFE AJy^D KESOURCES I>^ A:MEEICA.

mines of Pennsylvania. The first railway for the trans-
mission of coal from the mines was built in 1827, and the
coal mines now give employment to more than forty rail-
roads and canals. It is a common occurrence for a train
of 100 cars to enter the city of Philadelphia, loaded with
anthracite, and the same may be said of Baltimore, which
is the principal exporting place for bituminous coal. The
total product of the United States for the year 1868 was
about 19,000,000 tons, valued at $26,000,000, since which
time these figures have been increased, and are still in-
creasing. It is now seventy years since anthracite coal was
used as fuel in this country, and about forty years since it
began to be extensively rained in the United States ; and
it has been stated by authentic writers on the subject, that
the coal-fields of the United States are thirty-six times
greater than those of Great Britain, while the annual pro-
duction of Britain is five times greater than that of the
United States. The reasons for this great difference are
apparent. In many of the States of the Union, the climate
is so mild that no coal is needed for domestic pur-
poses, and when fuel is demanded for manufacturing pur-
poses, there is always to be obtained an abundant supply
of wood. And then again, excepting the New England,
the Middle, and some of the Western States, where prai-
ries abound, the forests are so numerous that it must be
many years before coal will become a necessity among the
people. Indeed, the ver}'- remarkable fact has been chron-
icled, that in some of the Western States, where agricul-
ture is the chief source of wealth, the article known as
maize, or Indian corn, has been employed as fuel. Ifj how-
ever, we find that a large proportion of the inhabitants in

LIFE AMOi>"G THE Mlis^ERS. 307

America have no immediate interest in the production of
coal, it is at the same time true, that a very large part of
the population are consumers of what is called coal-oil, or
petroleum. Although long known to the scientific world,
this article did not become known to the commercial world
until 1858. It is found in various parts of the country,
but more extensively in western Pennsylvania than in any
other region, where very large fortunes have been made by
persons engaged in drawing the precious liquid out of the
earth. It is obtained by means of artesian wells, which
are sunk from one hundred to six hundred feet into the
earth, and some of which have yielded, with the aid of
forcing-pumps, as much as two thousand barrels of oil in a
single day. The applications of petroleum are chiefly
limited to purposes of illumination and lubricating ma-
chinery, and for the latter purpose the consumption is very
large on the railroads and in the manufactories. A distil-
lation of this oil is also used in the manufacture of certain
kinds of leather, and in the preparation of paints and var-
nishes. This trade in rock-oil has become very extensive,
and is every day becoming more and more highly appreci-
ated as a servant of civilization ; the revenue w^hich it
produces being of great magnitude, and the number of
people which it supports very numerous.

The next important mineral product that we have to no-
tice is iron, recognized as the most useful known to man.
It is more widely distributed throughout the United States
than any of the important metals ; is found in abundance
in New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Maryland, and Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Oregon, Virginia,
the Carolinas, Alabama, and Missouri ; but is chiefly mined

308 LIFE AKD EESOURCES liT AMERICA.

in Pennsylvania and Isew Jersey, where the yield is more
than one-half of the whole product in the United States, or
about seven hundred tons per annum, from one Imndred
and thirty establishments. In Missouri it is found in great
abundance, where there is a hill called " Iron Mountain,"
which is more than two hundred feet high, and is supposed
to contain two hundred and fifty milHons of tons of pure
metal. Another well-nigh solid iron mountain is called
"Pilot Knob," nearly six hundred feet high, and, it is
thought, would furnish one million tons per annum for two
hundred years. These two mountains, with another called
Shepherd's Mountain, also in Missouri, are considered among
the curiosities of America. And yet, with these figures be-
fore us, the astounding fact is proclaimed that nearly half
a million tons of iron were imported from Great Britain in
1868, while the yield of the United States was about six-
teen hundred thousand tons. But the fact that there should
be any iron imported from England, grows out of the oper-
ations of the American Tariff*. The great magnitude and
importance of the iron interest, which can only be fully
treated in elaborate volumes, is rendered difficult to notice
in a paragraph like the present. The processes by which
the ores are turned into metallic iron are as follows : In
what are called bloomeries and forges the ores are conver-
ted directly into malleable iron, without passing through the
intermediate stage of cast or pig iron ; and by means of
blast-furnaces, the ores are decomposed as they fuse, in vast
quantities at a time, and produce the cast or pig iron ; — and
then they have what are called rolling-mills, which convert
the iron into sheets and plates. With regard to the uses
to which iron is appropriated in the United States, they are

LIFE AMOXG THE MISTERS. 309

well-nigh infinite ; and we can only obtain a,n idea of the
extent of its consumption, by reflecting npon the quantity
of it which is transferred into steel, for cutlery and machin-
ery ; upon the extensive lines of railway in the country and
the great number of locomotives employed ; and upon man-
ifold uses in connection with shipping and house-building
throughout the length and breadth of this immense coun-
try.

We come now to speak of the production of lead in the
United States. The two most prominent deposits of this
useful mineral are to be found in the States of Missouri and
Illinois. The working of the former was commenced in
1854 and the latter in 1718. The largest supply comes from
those two States, although it is also found in abundance in
Wisconsin and Iowa. The American lead is remarkable
for its softness and purity, and although obtained with
comparative ease, excepting what is mined in Illinois and
Iowa, it is not easily transported to market. The total
production of the Union, during the year 1869, was esti-
mated at thirty-eight millions of pounds, while Spain pro-
duced about sixty-seven millions, and Great Britain more
than one hundred and fifty-three millions of pounds ;— and
the imports into the United States greatly exceed the
domestic product. The uses to which the metal is applied
are very numerous and highly important. One of the most
useful applications of lead is in the manufacture of the
carbonate, which is extensively used as a white paint, and
also as a body for other colors. The smelting of lead and
the manufacture of the white paint therefrom, are considered
prejudicial to health, and the workmen suffer much from
colic and paralysis.

310 LIFE JS.1W EESOURCES IN" AMERICA.

Another of the more important minerals found in the
United States, in ahnost inexhaustible quantities, is quick-
silver. It is chiefly mined in California, where the annual
product is considerably more than half the yield of the
whole world beside, the total annual yield having been
about six hundred thousand pounds. Until recently the
mines of Spain controlled the Chinese market, but the
miners of California shipped a large amount to Hong Kong,
where they sold it far below cost, and the supply from Spain
was driven back to that country. The English market is
now supplied by Spain and the Chinese market by California.
Besides the countries named, Austria and Peru furnish a
small supply of this valuable mineral. The chief demand
for it is for mining purposes, and for the manufacture of
calomel and vermilion.

With regard to the metals known as tin, zinc, platinum,
nickel, antimony, cobalt, and other minor metals, they are
all found in various parts of the United States, but none of
them have as yet been mined to any great extent. With
the increase of population and railways, it is supposed that
the business of mining will grow into a gigantic national
interest, and that America will lead the world in the value
and variety of her mineral products. The National Govern-
ment, within the last few years, has done much to develop
the hidden resources of the land, by sending forth com-
petent scientific expeditions, and publishing their results
for the benefit of the public ; and the people themselves
have manifested their interest in the subject by establishing
and supporting a number of well-conducted journals de-
voted wholly to Mining-Engineering.

In taking a general survey of the mining population of

LIFE AMOXG THE MI:N'ERS. 311

America, we cannot but conclude that they are noted for
their intelligence, and, in view of the hardship and pri-
vations which they undergo, are not as w^ell paid as they
should be, although better paid than the mining people of
other countries. A very large proportion of them, how-
ever, are foreigners, and as they have generally improved
their condition by emigrating to this country, they are
contented with their lot. Those of them who are en-
gaged in mining coal, iron, lead, and copper, in the older
States of the Union, have facilities for the education of
their children at common-schools, but in the frontier States
and Territories, where the precious metals are chiefly found,
family-men are not abundant, and the opportunities for
making them comfortable, and educating the young, are
few and far between.

LIFE I]sr THE ARMY AIS'D E"ATT.

The standing army of the United States began with the
foundation of the Government in 1789, but, when necessary,
it has always been customary to employ what is called a
volunteer force or army. During the war of the Revolu-
tion, the number of soldiers employed was 275,000; in the
war of 1812, the combined troops numbered 527,631 ; dur-
ing the Seminole war of 1817, 5,611 ; Black Hawkwar of
1832, 5,031 ; Florida war of 1842, 29,953 ; war with Mex-
ico in 1846, 73,260; miscellaneous troubles, about 20,000 ;
and during the late Civil War, the forces in the field, at one
time, numbered 2,688,523. The total amount of money
expended by the United States in carrying on its various
wars was $3,308,352,706.

The regular army of the United States is at present con-
stituted as follows: 1 general, 3 major-generals, 16 briga-
dier-generals, 68 colonels, 83 lieutenant-colonels, 271 majors,
36 aides-de-camp, 532 captains, 40 adjutants (extra lieuten-
ants), 40 regimental quartermasters (extra lieutenants), 682
first lieutenants, 455 second lieutenants, 34 chaplains, 29
military store-keepers, 5 medical store-keepers, 40 sergeant-
majors, 40 quartermaster-sergeants, 40 chief musicians, 60
principal musicians, 10 saddler-sergeants, 10 chief trumpet-
ers, 151 ordnance-sergeants, 362 hospital stewards, 430 first
sergeants, 430 company quartermaster-sergeants, 1,947 ser-
geants, 1,837 corporals, 240 trumpeters, 654 musicians, 240

LIFE lis" THE AEMT AXD ivTAVY. 313

farriers or blacksmiths, 620 artificers, 120 saddlers, 430
wagoners, 300 privates of the 1st class (ordnance and en-
gineers), 299 privates of the 2d class (ordnance and en-
gineers), 22,100 privates, also one battalion sergeant-major,
and one battalion quartermaster-sergeant; making the
whole number of commissioned officers 2,263, and the
whole number of enlisted men 30,000. There are, besides,
at the United States Military Academy, 8 professors and
241 cadets, making the total commissioned and enlisted,
32,512. The army is sub-divided into 10 regiments of cav-
alry, 5 regiments of artillery, 25 regiments of infantry, and
the Engineer Battalion. Each regiment of cavalry has 1
colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors, 1 adjutant (extra
lieutenant), 1 regimental quartermaster (extra lieutenant),
12 captains, 12 first lieutenants, 12 second lieutenants, 1
sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 chief musician,
1 saddler-sergeant, 1 chief trumpeter, 12 first sergeants, 12
company quartermaster-sergeants, 60 sergeants, 48 corpo-
rals, 24 trumpeters, 24 farriers and blacksmiths, 12 saddlers,
12 wagoners, and 804 privates. The whole number of
commissioned officers to the regiment is 44, and whole
number enlisted is 1,013, making the aggregate 1,057. The
regiment is sub-divided into 12 troops, each troop having 1
captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1 first sergeant,

1 company quartermaster-sergeant, 5 sergeants, 4 corporals,

2 trumpeters, 2 farriers and blacksmiths, 1 saddler, 1 wag-
oner, 67 privates; total commissioned, 3 ; total enlisted,
84; aggregate, 87.

There are 5 regiments of Artillery, each regiment having
1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 3 majors, 1 adjutant (extra
lieutenant), 1 regimental quartermaster (extra lieutenant),

14

314 LIFE A]S"D EESOUKCES i:?^ AMERICA.

12 captains, 24 first lieutenants, 13 second lieutenants, 1
sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 chief musician,
2 principal musicians, 12 iirst sergeants, 12 company quar-
termaster-sergeants, 50 sergeants, 48 corporals, 24 musi-
cians, 24 artificers, 12 wagoners, and 562 privates; total
commissioned, 56 ; total enlisted, 749 ; aggregate, 805. To
each regiment there are 12 companies, one of which is
mounted, and is called a light battery. A company of
artillery consists of 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants, 1 second
lieutenant (light battery has 2), 1 first sergeant, 1 company
quartermaster-sergeant, 4 sergeants (light battery has 6),
4 corporals, 2 musicians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, 45 privates
(light battery has 67) ; total commissioned, 4 (light bat-
tery 5) ; total enlisted, 60 (light battery 84) ; aggregate,
64 (light battery 89).

There are 25 regiments of Infantry, each having I
colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant (extra
lieutenant), 1 regimental quartermaster (extra lieutenant),
10 captains, 10 first lieutenants, 10 second lieutenants, 1
sergeant-major, 1 quartermaster-sergeant, 1 chief musician,
2 principal musicians, 10 first sergeants, 10 company
quartermaster-sergeants, 40 sergeants, 40 corporals, 20
musicians, 20 artificers, 10 wagoners, and 450 privates;
total commissioned, 36; total enlisted, 605 ; aggregate, 641.
Each regiment has 10 companies; to each company there
are 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 1
first sergeant, 1 company quartermaster-sergeant, 4 ser-
geants, 4 corporals, 2 musicians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, 45
privates; total commissioned, 3; total enlisted, 60; aggre-
gate, 63.

Another branch of the service is the Engineer Battalion,

LIFE li^ THE ARMY AXD Is^AVT. 315

which has 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1 quartermaster, 5 caiDtains,
5 first lieutenants, 5 second lieutenants, 1 sergeant-major,
1 quartermaster-sergeant, 50 sergeants, 5 corporals, 10
musicians, 119 privates of the first class, 119 privates of
the second class; total commissioned, 16 ; total enlisted,
350; aggregate, 366. In the battalion there are 5
companies, each having 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1
second lieutenant, 10 sergeants, 10 corporals, 2 musicians,
24 privates, first class, 24 privates, second class; total
commissioned, 3 ; total enlisted, 70 ; aggregate, 73.

The President is by law Commander-in-Chief of the
Army. To assist him in the execution of the laws, in so
far as they relate to the army, in its control, subsistence,
.and supply, a Secretary of War is appointed by him,
through whom he exercises a general supervision. To
facilitate this a Department of War has been established,
which is sub-divided into the following staff departments
or corps :

1. Adjutant-General's Department.

2. Inspector-General's Department.

3. Bureau of Military Justice.

4. Quartermaster's Department.

5. Subsistence Department.

6. Medical Department.

7. Pay Department.

8. Signal Ofiicer.

9. Chief of Staff to the General of the Army,

10. Corps of Engineers.

11. Ordnance Department.

The general stafifis the central point of military adminis-
tration. It comprises all the officers concerned in regula-

316 LIFE AXD EESOUECES IIN" AMERICA.

ting the details of the service, and furnishing the army
with the means necessary for its subsistence, comfort,
mobility, and action.

All general orders which emanate from the headquarters
of the army, the orders of detail, of instruction, of move-
ment, and all general regulations for the army, are com-
municated to the troops through the office of the Adjutant-
General.

The Adjutant-General is charged with the record of
military appointments, promotions, resignations, deaths,
and other casualties ; with the registry and filling up of
commissions, and with their distribution ; with the records
which relate to the personnel of the army, and to the mili-
tary history of every officer and soldier; with the duties
connected with the recruiting service ; the registry of the
names of soldiers ; their enlistment and descriptive lists,
and of deaths, desertions, discharges, etc. ; with the pre-
servation of monthly returns of regiments and posts, and
the muster-rolls of companies ; with receipts and examina-
tion of applications for pension, previous to their being
sent to the Pension Office, and of inventories of the effiicts
of deceased soldiers.

The annual returns of the militia of the several States
and Territories ; of the ordnance, arms, accoutrements, and
munitions of war appertaining to the same, required by
law to be made to the President of the United States, are
filed, and the general returns of the militia annually
required to be laid before Congress, are also prepared and
consolidated in this office.

The Inspector-General's Department is charged with the
duty of inspecting and reporting upori the condition of the

LIFE I>T THE ARMY Ai^D NAVY. 317

forts, with their armaments, of the state of discipline of the
troops — in short, upon the whole " material and personnel "
of the army, and to report whether or not the prescribed
rules, regulations, and orders for its government are
properly carried into effect.

In the office of the Judge Advocate-General, under
whose charge is the Bureau of Military Justice, the pro-
ceedings of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and
military commissions, are received, revised, recorded, and
reported upcm. It is the duty of the Judge Advocate-
General to report at once for the action of the Secretary of
War, all fatal irregularities in proceedings, and illegal oi
unusual sentences. When called upon by the proper
authority, he gives an opinion on questions of construction
of military law ; and through him all communications
pertaining to questions of military justice should be
addressed.

The Quartermaster-General's Department furnishes to
the army its transportation, of whatever nature, quarters,
fuel, stationery, etc., and pays for rent of quarters and for
all materials to be used in the construction of buildings
for its use. To that office are sent all rejDorts and returns
of property purchased, issued, worn out in service, lost,
sold, destroyed, or remaining on hand, and there are
approved all contracts for purchases connected with the
above.

The Subsistence Department, as its name implies, has
charge of the furnishing of subsistence to troops ; all reports
and returns necessary to the end that stores may be pro-
perly accounted for, are made to this office, and here all
contracts for their purchase are approved.

318 LIFE AXD EESOURCES i:S" AMERICA.

The Medical Department, or Surgeon-General's Office, has
charge of the selection of medical offices for detail, and to
it all returns and reports in regard to sick and wounded of-
ficers and soldiers, and medical stores, are made. AYith re-
gard to the other bureaus or offices which have been men-
tioned, their duties are described by their titles.

We may further remark, in brief, that the American army
is divided into divisions and departments commanded by
generals ; that in times of peace it is chiefly employed in
occupying the various forts and defences of the country, and
in keeping peace with the Indians on the frontiers ; that,
after forty years of service, the officers of the army may at
their own request be retired, receiving seventy-five per cent,
of their pay ; that members of Congress designate the larg-
est proportion of those who are admitted to the West Point
Academy, which is the regular school for the education of
officers for the army. When, in time of war, it is necessary
to have volunteers, they are called for by proclamation of
the President, and the State governors immediately answer
the call, and send the proportion assigned to them, which
are chiefly composed of the militia or State troops ; and
after the war, these volunteer troops are disbanded and re-
turn to the ordinary avocations of life, which fact has been
considered by foreigners as one of the marvels of the
American Government. The regular army is supplied with
soldiers by enlistment, and after entering the service, no
man can leave it without the consent of Government, nor
without sufficient cause. With regard to the pay of the
army, which is always enhanced by long service, we submit
the following: general, $13,500; lieutenant-general, $11,-
000; major-general, $7,500; brigadier-general, $5,500;

LIFE I^T THE ARMY AXD JsXYY. 319

colonel, $3,500 ; lieutenant-colonel, $3,000 ; major, $2,-
500; captains, $1,800 and $2,000; regimental adjutant
and quartermaster, each $1,800 ; lirst lieutenants, $1,500
and $1,600; second lieutenants, $1,400 and $1,500; and
chaplains, $1,500. The pay of the common soldier is
$13 per month, with rations. There are 25 armories and
arsenals in the country, all in command of competent
officers, and the Military Departments of the Government
number 15, and embrace the whole Union. Tiie amount
required for supporting the military establishments daring
1872 is about $29,000,000.

As the War Department is the centre of the army, so is
the Navy Department the fountain-head of the navy. The
duties of this department are distributed through the Sec-
retary's office and eight bureaus, namely : Bureau of Yards
and Docks, which has charge of the navy-yards, including
the docks, wharves, buildings, and machinery, and also of a
Naval Asylum ; Office of Navigation, which has charge of
the maps, charts, flags, signals, etc., and also of the Naval
Academy, Naval Observatory, and Nautical Almanac ; Office
of Ordnance, which has charge of ordnance and ordnance
stores, the manufacture and purchase of cannon, guns, pow-
der, shot, shell, etc. ; Office of Construction and Repair,
having charge of the construction of vessels of war ; Office
of Equipment and Recruiting, which has charge of the en-
listment of men for the navy, the equipment of vessels, an-
chors, cables, rigging, sails, coal, etc. ; Office of Provis-
ions and Clothing ; and Office of Steam Engineering ; Office
of Medicine and Surgery, the duties of wdiich last two are
described by their titles. There is attached to the Navy
Department what is called the Marine Corps, whose duties

320 LIFE Ai^D RESOUECES 12^ AMERICA.

are allied to tliose of the army, only that they are per-
formed on board shij) or at the navy-yards ; also a National
Observatory, which has earned a world-wide reputation ; and
also an Hydrographic Office, which, with the Observatory,
annually publishes volumes of scientific information of
great value.

The largest vessel in the United States navy has a dis-
placement of 5,440 feet, carries 12 guns, and, like the
majority in the service, is a screw steamer. Some other
ships, however, cany 45 guns. Of those ranking as first-
rates there are 5 ; second-rates, 40 ; third-rates, 43 ; fourth-
rates, 10 ; to which may be added the iron-clads, receiving
and practice ships, supply vessels and tugs, making in all
179, and carrying in the aggregate 1,390 guns. The offi-
cers of the navy, to which we affix their "at sea" sala-
ries, are as follows: 1 admiral, $13,000; 1 vice-admiral,
$9,000; 12 rear-admirals, $6,000 ; 24 commodores, $5,000;
50 captains, $4,500; 89 commanders, $3,500; 164 lieu-
tenant-commanders, $2,800; 201 lieutenants, $2,400; 75
masters, $1,800; 68 ensigns, $1,200; 113 midshipmen,
$1,000; 150 in Medical Corps, whose salaries are widely
various; 134 in the Pay Corj^s, with various salaries; and
241 in the Engineer Corps, together with an ample sup-
ply of naval constructors, chaplains, professors of mathe-
matics, and civil engineers, whose salaries range from
$1,700 to $4,400, and are increased with length of ser-
vice. The jDay of common seamen is $21.50 per month,
and while the subordinate grades in the service num-
ber 57, their pay ranges from $8 to $56 per month.
The academy where young men are fitted for ser-
vice in the navy is located at Annapolis, and is under

LIFE IX THE ARMY AXD Is"AVY. '321

rules, in regard to admission, allied to those of the Mili-
tary Academy at West Point. Of complete Navy Yards
there are eight in the United States ; five fleets are now
doing duty in various quarters of the globe ; and within
the last year several scientific expeditions have been fitted
out, as follows, viz.: one to survey the Isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec and another to survey the Isthmus of Darien, both of
which have in view the making of a canal between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; and an expedition has also
been fitted out for explorations towards the North Pole.
Indirectly connected with the navy is a bureau called the
Light-House Board, with which, as an active member, has
hitherto been connected Admiral Thornton A. Jenkins,
but Avho has recently been assigned to the fleet in the
waters of China and Japan. Without going more fully
into the subject, for want of space, it only remains for us
to add, in conclusion, that the sum of money which will
be required to support the American naval establishment
during the year 1872 will be about ^20,000,000.

14*

LIFE IN" THE LEADIISTG CITIES.

The total number of incorporated cities in the United
States is 409, but many of them do not contain more
than 2,000 inhabitants. By far the largest proportion
of foreigners who come to this country across the Atlantic
Ocean, enter the country at the port of New York,
which is the largest city in the Western Hemisphere.
It was founded by the Dutch, and called by them New
Amsterdam. It occupies the greater part of an island
called Manhattan, which is IGJ miles long, and contains
an area of 22 miles. The cities of Brooklyn and Jersey
City, and several other towns, although having each
a government of its own, are in reality portions of New
York, and their combined population is not far from
1,500,000. According to the last census, the population
of New York by itself was 942,292; of whom 523,198
were born in the United States, and 484,109 in the
State of New York. Within eight miles of the com-
mercial metropolis, in New Jersey, is a city called
Newark, of 100,000 people, but it is so closely identified
with the former in its business and social interests as
almost to be considered a suburb of New York. Dur-
ing the last fifteen years the number of immigrants
arriving there, from various parts of the world, was
about 2,341,000, the arrivals for 1870 alone having been

LIFE 1^ THE LEADING CITIES. 323

211,190, and it is estimated that about four- fifths of
these foreigners found jDermanent homes in the various
States of the interior. The principal street of New York,
which runs through its entire length like a backbone, is
called Broadway, and for several miles is completely lined
with iron and marble buildings, devoted chiefly to business
pursuits, and winning for it the reputation of being one of
the handsomest and wealthiest streets in the world. But
much of this splendor is also found in all its subordinate
streets and avenues, where the houses are generally built
of brick; and, as a street for private residences, its Fifth
Avenue is claimed to be unsurpassed. Projecting, as this
city does, into a splendid harbor, where the fortifications
are strong and imposing, it is perpetually surrounded with a
forest of shipping, which gives the stranger an adequate
idea of its very extensive commerce. The value of
its real and personal estate has not been definitely set-
tled, but has been estimated at nearly 8800,000,000,
and the rate of taxation is 2 per cent, per annum.
It is supplied with pure water by an aqueduct which
cost more than $15,000,000, the water-pipes of which
measure some 270 miles. It has 100 miles of sewers,
and more than 200 miles of paved streets. Its temples
for religious worship are numerous, and many of them
very beautiful, the church property of the city reach-
ing in value nearly $15,000,000. Its principal park,
known as Central Park, is said to be equal to the
best in Europe, and its principal financial street, known
as Wall-street, although not more than half a mile
in length, has a powder which is felt in the remotest
corners of the earth. Its hospitals and other bene-

324 LIFE AXD RESOURCES IK AMERICA.

volent institutions are numerous and liberally con-
ducted in every j^articular, and the same may be said
of its institutions of learning, ranging from first-class
colleges to the best of district or common schools. It is
abundantly supplied with libraries, many of which are
very large, and all of them are conducted on the most
liberal principles. Its manufacturing establishments are
numberless. Its fire department is noted for its efiiciency,
and is founded on the voluntary system; and there is a
lively military spirit among its young men, and its militia
regiments rival veteran regulars in their drill. Its police
force is of the first order, and is managed by commissioners.
Policemen are appointed during good behavior, and
officers rise from the ranks. Patrolmen are paid $800
per annum, sergeants $900, captains $1,200, inspectors
$2,000, and a general superintendent $5,000 a year.
There are about VOO police stations, 412 miles of streets,
and 11 miles of piers in the city. Its newspapers
are abundant, and, taken in the aggregate, are pro-
bably more influential for good or evil than any similar
number on the globe. Its markets for the necessaries
of life are fully supplied with everything that can be
desired, in the ^vay of meats, flour, fruit, and fish.
Its government, although resting upon the most liberal
provisions, has for many years been a kind of political
arena, in which unworthy men have obtained and exercised
the most dangerous powers, and, at the moment of writing
these lines, a number of men who were lately at the head
of the city government are confined in a common prison
for robbing their fellow-citizens to an enormous extent.
While it is true that New York is very much of a cosmo-

LIFE 15^ THE LEADING CITIES. 325

politan city, it has been estimated that two-thirds of its
inhabitants are natives of the United States. It is, how-
ever, pre-eminently a commercial city, and in several
respects is equal to London. The post-ofiice of Xew York
is the most important in the country; and its customs
receipts amount to about three-fifths of the total in the
United States. The manufactures of the city constitute a
leading element of its prosperity and wealth. The most
numerous class of workm.en are those engaged in making
wearing apparel ; next to whom come the workmen in iron
and metals ; then the chemists ; workmen in leather, steam
machinery, and lumber; navigators; workmen in fibrous sub-
stances, glass, and pottery, and the manufacturers of cars and
wagons ; so on, — to an almost unlimited extent. Nowhere
is the habit of eating away from home so general as in
New York, owing to the great distance between the dwell-
ing-houses and the places of business ; and this habit has
made eating-houses, lunch-rooms, refectories, oyster-cellars,
and bar-rooms, a prominent feature of the place. Its hotels
are quite magnificent, and its boarding-houses as comforta-
ble as any in the world. The eating-houses are found
everywhere, and are frequented by the millionaire as well
as the vagabond. The city government is vested in a
Mayor and Boards of Aldermen and Councilmen, who are
annually elected by the people. While it is true that in
times of high political excitement it is sometimes afflicted
with mobs and riots, the din of business always ceases on
the approach of the Sabbath, and that day is observed as a
day of rest, of church-going, and of recreation, by its teem-
ing thousands. The spring and autumn are the two great
seasons for business ; winter, the special season for amuse-

326 LIFE AXD RESOUECES liT AMERICA.

ments and all sorts of gayety ; while the summer is com-
paratively sluggish, although, even then, the turmoil of
business is far from being dead.

The second largest city in the United States is Phila-
delphia, which was founded by William Penn in 1682, and
contains 674,022 inhabitants, of whom 490,398 were born
in the United States, and 428,250 in Pennsylvania. It
stands on a plain between the rivers Delaware and Schuyl-
kill, and has several suburban cities, the whole of which
form one municipality, containing 120 square miles. The
streets of the city proper are laid out in regular order, and
the houses are more distinguished for their neatness and
comfort than for their richness or extravagance, and in this
particular are in keeping with the character of the popula-
tion. The city is well supplied with parks, one of which,
for its collection of trees and scenes of beauty, is considered
a successful rival of the great Central Park of New York.
Its public buildings are numerous and beautiful ; one of
them, called Girard College, was built and the institution
endowed by one of its citizens alone; but the chief boast
of the inhabitants is Independence Hall, which was the
meeting-place of Congress during the earlier history of the
American Republic. The churches are also numerous, all
the religious denominations being well supplied, but this is
especially the case in regard to the Quakers, who have
hitherto been so numerous and influential as to have given
to their city the name of Quaker City. The literary and
scientific institutions of Philadelphia have always occupied
a high position, and the cultured character of its inhabi-
tants has always been manifested by its rich libraries and
galleries of art, and by the upright character of its press.

LIFE IN" THE LEADIXG CITIES. d27

It was here that BeDJamin Franklin lived, and worked as
a printer, and won his great fame as a philosopher. From
the earliest times the central mint of the United States has
been established here, and the city has borne an important
part in the financial historj-' of the country. Because of its
remoteness from the Atlantic Ocean, it may not compete
with New York in its foreign commerce, but it carries on
an immense trade with the interior country, and is a noted
terminus for unnumbered railroads and canals. As a depot
for the exportation of coal it is without a rival; and it has
always been famous for the extent of its book-publishing
business. Within the last few years Philadelphia has
greatly increased its manufacturing establishments, until
its inhabitants now claim that they can produce every-
thing that may be required for the comfort or convenience
of man ; indeed, in the variety and extent of its manufac-
tures it is said to be unequalled by any other city in the
Union. On this point, we submit one illustration, which
is, that it contains the two largest establishments in the
world for the manufacture of locomotives, which give
employment to about 4,000 hands, and can build one
of those wonderful engines in a single day. The capital
invested in its manufacturing establishments is estimated
at 8300,000,000. While the inhabitants of this city are
noted for their peacefid disposition and for their love of
order, it is also true that it has been the scene of many
political or religious disturbances, but which, in these latter
days, have been quite unknown. Another of the character-
istics of this city is the total absence of tenement houses,
and the existence of comfortable homes for the laboring
population. As one of her public men informs us, every

328 LIFE AND RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

laborer, who has a family, dwells under a separate roof,
which is most frequently his own — in a house lighted by
gas, and supplied with an abundance of pure water. As
this city is pre-eminently a producing city, so are its native
and foreign inhabitants distinguished for their industry,
and there is not in the whole land, probably, any other
crowded city where among the working classes more gen-
uine comfort and contentment can be found.

The next city on our list is Boston, which contains 250,-
526 inhabitants, of whom 172,450 w^ere born in the United
States, and 127,620 in the State of Massachusetts. If, how-
ever, we should add to it the various towns which adjoin
it, the population would be nearly double. It was first
settled in 1630 by the Puritans, and is the leading city of
New England, upon which it has always exerted a para-
mount influence. It bore a very important part in the his-
tory of the American Revolution, and events of great
importance have transpired within its limits and in its
vicinity. Formerly it was more closely identified with the
commerce of the East than any other American city, and
at the present time ranks next to New York in the extent
of its foreign commerce. The city is chiefly situated on a
peninsula, and some of the adjacent parts, with which it is
connected by numerous bridges, rise to the height of one
hundred and thirty feet above the level of the harbor,
which is deep, convenient, and secure. The streets were
originally laid out upon no systematic plan, and being ac-
commodated to the unevenness of the surface, many of
them are crooked and narrow, but these defects are being
annually remedied. Many of the public buildings are
handsome, but some of them are inore famous for their

LIFE IIS" THE LEADING CITIE3. 329

associations than their imposing appearance. The State
House occupies the apex of the city, and presents a com-
manding view of the sea and surrounding country ; and
its Faneuil Hall is universally known as the " Cradle of
Liberty," because it was here that the orators of the Revo-
lution fired the hearts of the people against England. One
of its leading land-marks is the monument of Bunker Hill,
where was fought a famous battle. Its wharves and ware-
houses are on a scale of magnitude surpassed by no other
city of the same size. Its churches are numerous, and
many of them beautiful, the largest number of them be-
longing to the Unitarian denomination. It has an exten-
sive park called "Boston Common," which is a delightful
resort for the inhabitants during the vernal months. With
regard to literary, scientific, and educational institutions,
the city is most abundantly supplied. Its schools have a
high reputation, and it publishes more than one hundred
periodicals. Among its many libraries is one, the largest,
which is entirely free to all who may desire to enjoy its
advantages ; and the fact that the famous Harvard Univer-
sity is located in one of its suburbs, called Cambridge, has
greatly tended to give to it its high reputation as a seat of
learning. Its benevolent institutions are also numerous
and richly endowed, and it has taken a prominent part in
providing for the wants and intellectual elevation of the
blind and the comforts of the insane. Its infirmaries have
always borne a high reputation. The ice-trade is a Bos-
ton invention, and is said to have secured for it the im-
portant trade which it enjoys with Calcutta, and other
portions of the East. On the score of enterprise and cul-
ture, the inhabitants of Boston have no superiors, and that

330 LIFE AN"D EESOUECES 12^ AMERICA.

circumstance has tenrled to make them somewhat clannish
or exclusive in their manners and conversation, and their
modes of doin^ business; and hence it is that the outside
world, especially the cosmopolitan citizens of New York,
occasionally indulge in a little ridicule at the expense of
the Bostonians, It is a thriving city, and, by means of
seven or eight great lines of railway, carries on an import-
ant trade in manufactures with the interior country. It is
a poor place for idlers and beggars, and yet the most liberal
provision is made for the deserving poor. While this city
does much to prom^ote the fine arts, it claims a reputation
of its own for what it has done in developing the art of
music, and it boasts of a church organ which is the largest
in the world.

Another of the leading cities of America is Baltimore,
which has a population of 267,354, of whom 210,870 were
born in the United States, and 187,650 in the State of
Maryland. It was founded by the Roman Catholics in
1729: is admirably situated both for foreign and internal
trade, having a spacious and secure harbor, and occupying
a central position as regards the Atlantic coast of the
United States. The site of the city is picturesque, cover-
ing a number of eminences ; and, although connected with
the Northern and Western States by its business ramifica-
tions, it has hitherto been considered a representative of
the Southern States. It was here that the first gun was
fired, by a mob, at the commencement of the late civil
war, when a regiment of troops from Massachusetts was
assaulted, on their way to Washington. Its proximity to
the seat of government, from which it is only 38 miles
distant, has added to its importance, and made it pop-

LIFE IN THE LEADING CITIES. 331

ular with the officials of the nation. From the number and
prominence of its monuments, it has been called the " Monu-
mental City." The most imposing of these is surmounted
by a statue of George Washington, which stands .312
feet above the adjacent harbor; and the city contains
a shot-tower which is 250 feet high— the highest in the
w^orld. The churches of this city are numerous, and many
of them beautiful and imposing ; and it boasts of one large
park, which is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery,
and is a successful rival of those m ^ew York and Bos-
ton. The manufacturing facilities of Baltimore are un-
common, and quite equal to its commercial advantages.
In its benevolent and educational institutions it is behind
none of its sister cities, and its name is associated with
many men of culture, connected with literature, science,
and the fine arts. It w^as here that the famous George
Peabody first established himself in business, and where he
founded one of the largest educational institutions asso-
ciated with his name.

Among the representative cities of America is New
Orleans. It was founded by the French in 1717, and has
a population of 191,418. Its site is on the eastern
bank of the great Mississippi River, about 100 miles
above the mouth of that stream, and as it forms a half
circle, has been called the Crescent City. Many parts of
it are so low and flat that the waters are kept from over-
flowing it only by artificial embankments. It possesses
unrivalled natural advantages for internal trade, and it is
visited by vessels from every quarter of the globe. Every
description of craft is employed in transporting to it the
rich products of the Mississippi and its many tributaries,

332 LIFE AND RESOURCES i:?^ AMERICA.

whose navigable waters are not less than 15,000
miles in extent, and embrace every variety of climate.
Not only is it the receptacle of countless varieties of
produce from the interior, but is considered the largest
cotton market in the world. The particular spot where all
this merchandise is received, and from which it is shipped to
foreign ports, is called the levee ; it extends along the river
for miles, and because of the strange commingling of ships
and steamboats and other kinds of vessels, and also on
account of its vast pi^Dortions and never-ceasing bustle,
has been pronounced by travellers one of the wonders of
America. It abounds in handsome buildings, and its
various public institutions rest on liberal foundations. On
account of its low situation and warm climate it is subject
to annual visitations from the yellow fever, which is fre-
quently fatal to strangers. Any description of this city
would be incomplete without a notice, of its cemeteries.
Each one is inclosed with a thick brick wall of arched cav-
ities, made just large enough to admit a single coffin, and
rising to the height of twelve feet. Within the inclosure
are crowded the tombs, which are built wholly above the
ground, and are from one to three stories high. This
method of sepulture is a necessity, for the earth is so uni-
versally saturated with water, that none but paupers are
consigned to the earth. The population of the city is
exceedingly varied; its chief resident inhabitants are
known as Creoles, or the native population ; and those who
are engaged in mercantile pursuits, and are successful, usu-
ally remain there during the winter or business months,
spending their summers among the highlands of the interior
country. It is also thickly inhabited by colored people,

LIFE IX THE LEADING CITIES. 333

who were once in slavery. It was the scene of quite a
famous battle in 1815, between the English and the Amer-
icans under Andrew Jackson, who was victorious, and sub-
sequently became President of the United States. The
prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, and many churches
are modelled upon those of European countries; and not-
withstanding the fact that this city is sometimes called the
"Wet Grave," and the "City of the Dead," it is celebra-
ted for its continuous round of gayeties, from the beginning
of the year to its close.

On leaving New Orleans, if we pass up the Missis-
sippi River about 1,200 miles, we come to the city of
St. Louis, which contains 310,864 inhabitants. It was
founded by the French fur-traders, and possesses the pecu-
liarity of being located at the geographical centre of the
North A-raerican Continent ; and its advantages as a com-
mercial emporium are probably not surpassed by those
of any inland port in the world. The business transacted
here by means of steamboats and railroads is enormous ;
the people are cosmopolitan in their character, and not
behind the cities of the eastern States in their industry,
liberality, and intellectual culture. And what we say of
St. Louis is also true of Cincinnati, on the Ohio, with its
216,239 inhabitants; of Louisville, on the same river, with
its 100,753 inhabitants ; and of Chicago, on Lake Michi-
gan. With regard to the last named place, we may
remark that its rapid growth, in 25 years, from a
village to a city of nearly 300,000, is one of the
marvels of the age. But, since the first pages of this
volume were sent to press, Chicago has met with a
calamity by fire, which has been pronounced quite unpre-

334 LIFE AXD RESOURCES IJT AMERICA.

cedented. It occurred in October, 1871, and resulted in
the total destruction of all the business portions of the
city. More than 100 lives were also lost, 80,000
persons, including merchants and mechanics, were
thrown out of employment or reduced to beggary
in a single night, and the total loss of property was
estimated at $200,000,000. It is said to have been
the most extensive fire that ever occurred in any
country, and the sympathy felt for the sujfferers called
forth subscriptions of money from every quarter of the
globe, amounting in the aggregate to many millions of dol-
lars ; and what was still more wonderful was the fact that
the regular business of the city was again in successful
operation in a very few weeks, although it had to be trans-
acted under many and great disadvantages.

Having elsewhere touched upon the characteristics of
Washington, the metropolis of the United States, with its
12ri,000 inhabitants, we conclude our list of the larger
cities with an allusion to San Francisco, which contains
about 150,000 inhabitants. The rapidity of its growth can
only be compared with that of Chicago; and while the
former was chiefly built up by the gold mines of California,
the latter owes its prosperity to the agricultural develop-
ment of the wide and fertile region of which it is the cen^
tre. The fact that San Francisco is the largest American
seaport on the Pacific Ocean, and that it is at the terminus
of the Pacific Railroad, gives it command of the com-
merce of all the Eastern nations, by which advantages it will
probably become a city of vast importance and influence.
From the nature of its position, its social characteristics are
quite difierent from those of the Atlantic cities, and it is not

LIFE liT THE LEADIIn'G CITIES. 335

behind them in any of those qualities which give power and
dignity to a city ; yet it stands quite alone in regard to its
Chinese popuhition. The high rates of labor in this city
generally, and its dependence on importation for all its
iron, brass, cotton, hardware, and most of its wool, leather,
and hard-wood lumber, j^revent the establishment of fac-
tories, and all the cutlery, fine tools, and machinerj^, glass,
porcelain, clothing, and shoes are necessarily obtained from
abroad at a great expense, thus giving employment to a
large amount of shipping.

In our remarks thus far, we have only spoken of those
American cities which contain more than 100,000 inhab-
itants. But there are many smaller cities, which have a
world-wide fame on account of their beauty, business char-
acteristics, or historical associations. Among these may
be mentioned Charleston, which has about 50,000 inhabit-
ants, is the centre of the rice-producing country of South
Carolina, and in whose harbor, at Fort Sumter, was made
the first regular assault upon the national forces at the com-
mencement of tlie late civil war, when the city was a great
sufferer ; Savannah, the chief seaport of Georgia and the
rival of Charleston, having a population of nearly 30,000 ;
Richmond, in Virginia, with more than 50,000 inhabit-
ants, and famous for its beautiful location, its flour and
tobacco trade, and for having been the headquarters of
the late rebellion; Mobile, in Alabama, with 32,000 in-
habitants, possessing characteristics similar to those of
New Orleans ; Detroit, in Michigan, with nearly 80,000 in-
habitants, beautiful for situation, and the commercial gate-
way to the great lakes of Huron, Michigan, and Superior;
Milwaukie, in Wisconsin, with '71,000 inhabitants, the

336 LIFE a:n'd resoueces iiq" America.

counterpart of Chicago, and its unsuccessful rival ; Cleve-
land, in Ohio, with 93,000 energetic inhabitants; Buifalo,
at the eastern end of Lake Erie, with a population of
115,000 souls — near which are the Falls of Niagara; Pitts-
burg, in Pennsylvania, with a population of 86,000,
almost entirely devoted to the coal and iron interests ;
Albany, in Xew York, the head of navigation on the
Hudson, and famous for its Dutch history, and as being
the Capital of the Empire State, with 70,000 people;
Rochester and Troy, in the same State, with 63,000 souls ;
Indianapolis, in Indiana, with 48,000 people, and famous
for its surrounding agricultural country ; Portland, in
Maine, which has 32,000 souls, and one of the best harbors
in America ; and the cities of Cambridge, in Massachusetts,
and New Haven, in Connecticut, where are located two
of the leading colleges of the United States.

rEOE"TIEE LIFE Al^D DEYELOP-

me:n'ts.

The frontiers of America are so extensive, and the pur-
suits of their inhabitants so A^arious, that an entire volume
would not suffice to describe them with minuteness. In
taking a bird's-eye view of the domain in question (and a
similar view of other subjects is all that has been attempted
in tlie foregoing chapters), we propose to speak of the four
following characteristics, viz. : the Indians, the Pioneer Far-
mers, the Fur-Traders and Trappers, and the Lumbermen.

It is now a settled fact that the Red race, or native In-
dians of America, are gradually passing away under the
march of civilization. According to the most authentic
data, the number of Indians who recognize the President as
their Great Father is about 300,000. Of these, the Creeks,
Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, who live on the
head- waters of the Arkansas, number some 54,000 ; and, ex-
cepting 4,000 of the Six N'ationsin Xew York, 1,000 Chero-
kees in North Carolina, 600 Penobscots in Maine, and 41,-
000 of various tribes still holding reservations on the Great
Lakes, and the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, they are the
only tribes that have made any satisfactory advances
in acquiring the arts and comforts of civihzation* It would
thus appear that the number of wild Indians who live en-

15

338 LIFE AJTD KESOUECES I:N^ AMERICA.

tirely by the chase, and inhabit the American territories,
excluding Alaska, number 200,000 souls. Although nomi-
nally obedient to the laws of the United States, these hunting
tribes are, in reality, as free to roam as if there were no
central government. But with those who are partially
civilized the case is quite different. Their wealth has been
estimated at $3,300,000, while they support about 10 schools,
nearly the same number of teachers or missionaries, and
cultivate nearly 1,000 acres of land. The names by which
they are known number 150, and their geographical condi-
tion is co-extensive with the area of the United States and
Territories; and it is a remarkable fact, that of all the races
or classes of people who inhabit the United States, the
Indians are the only j^eople who are not recognized as citi-
zens by the General Government.

On leaving the hunting-grounds of the Red Men for the
haunts of opening civilization, the first thing which attracts
attention is the cabin of the pioneer or frontier farmer.
Though born and bred in a settled country, this man, who
represents a large class, has been tempted by the spirit of
enterprise to purchase a few hundred acres of land at the
low government price, which he is clearing away as rapidly
as possible, and in the midst of which he has fixed his home.
It is built of logs, small, and poorly furnished, and, but for
the smoke issuing from its rustic chimney, could hardly be
distinguished from the stable or barn where he shelters his
horses and oxen and cows. Hard work and rough fare are
the lot of this poor yeoman, but his mission, as a man, com ■
mands the highest respect. He has a growing family about
him, and in their welfare are centred all his hopes. Though
far removed from schools and churches, and the refinements

FROXTIER LIFE AXD DEVELOPMEXTS. 339

of life, he plods on year after year, giving his boys the best
education he can, thankful that they are approaching man's
estate, and clieered with the prospect that, like many of his
predecessors in a new country, he will acquire a fortune, and
spend his old age in a large frame or brick house, and end
his days in peace. Five, ten, or it may be fifteen, miles from
this man's cabin is another, built on the same model, and
whose owner is a counterpart of himself. Farther on, still
another log-cabin comes in view, and so on do they con-
tinue to appear, encompassing the entire frontiers of civili-
zation. The ancestors of many of these men were among
those who originally fought on the battle-field for the inde-
pendence of their country, and they themselves, with their
brothers and sons, flocked by thousands to its rescue, dur-
ing the late civil war in America. These men embody the
true spirit of the land in which they dwell, and in history
they will be long remembered with honor and gratitude,
for what they have done, and are doing, to make clear the
pathway of empire.

We come now to speak of that class of people, living on
the frontiers, known as fur-traders and trappers. The
business of collecting and selling furs and peltries was com-
menced immediately after the first settlement of the
country, and for about two hundred years was eminently
lucrative, and gave employment to large numbers of enter-
prising men. Representatives from France and England,
as well as the United States, participated in the trade, and
several companies of great magnitude and influence were
the outgrowth of this trade, viz. : the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany, the ISTorthwcst Company, and the American Fur
Company. Of late 5^ears, however, the fur business has

340 LIFE AI<TD EESOURCES IK AMERICA.

greatly declined on the American Continent, but is not
yet extinct. The men called traders are those who locate
themselves on the borders of the wilderness, and keep for
sale ample supplies of all such articles as may be needed by
the Indians or trappers, who pay for what they purchase
with furs and peltries. The more common articles required
are blankets, guns and ammunition, flour and pork, tobacco,
knives, as well as trinkets and the baneful fire-water, while
the articles for which they are exchanged are buffalo robes,
and the skins of the deer, the beaver, and the otter, the
sable, the mink, tlie bear, and the wolf, for all of which there
is always a demand in the cities of the Atlantic States.
The men known as trappers are either white men or half-
breeds (so called, because they are the offspring of French
fathers and Indian mothers), and they are the successful rivals
of the native Indians in hunting or trapping wild animals.
Those who reside in the prairie countries or among the
Itocky Mountains chiefly employ the horse in travelling,
while those who reside in the densely wooded regions where
rivers and lakes abound, employ the bark-canoe in their
operations. In the earlier times, w^hen America was yet a
wilderness, this latter class of men rendered important ser-
vice to the English and French nations, by acting as guides
and assistants in the exploring expeditions, and they be-
came universally known as voyageurs. While there are
many American towns and cities which owe their origin to
the existence of the fur-trade, the two most noted of these
are St. Louis, on the Mississippi River, and Montreal, in
Canada, w^hich lies on the river St. Lawrence, but both of
these noted cities are rapidly losing their former reputations,
and have really become cosmopolitan in their character, as

FRONTIER LIFE AKD DEVEL0P3IEXTS. 341

well as cities of great magnitude and importance in the
history of commerce.

But by far the most important phase of frontier life in
the United States is that connected with the lumbering
business. There is no country on the globe which equals
America in the extent of its valuable forests, and there is a
great and constantly-increasing demand for every variety
of lumber, for the building of houses and the countless other
things which are made of wood, and indispensable for the
comfort of mankind. The manufacture of lumber is of the
utmost importance, and is a prominent source of wealth in
America, the aggregate value of the trade amounting to
more than one hundred millions of dollars, and giving em-
ployment to nearly one hundred thousand persons in its
various departments. The variety of forest-trees which are
cut down and transformed into lumber is very great, but
the pine is most abundant, next to which may be mentioned
the fir, spruce, and hemlock, all of which are found in the
eastern, northern, and northwestern States. The various
marketable articles which are manufactured out of these
several woods are known as timber, staves, shingles, boards
of every thickness, scantling, masts and knees for shipping ;
and the uses to which these productions are applied are
endless, and of vast importance to the people in every sphere
of life. In North Carolina they have a peculiar kind of
pine, which they not only manufacture into lumber, but
from which the inhabitants obtain large quantities of tar,
pitch, and turpentine. In Alabama and Mississippi they
have still another variety of pine, Avhich is worked into
spars and masts by the ship-builders of the country. In
Florida, an extensive business is done in preparing the live-

342 LIFE AI^D EESOURCES IK AMERICA.

oak of that region for use in building the naval vessels of
the country, — the Government retaining the monopoly of
that valuable product. In many of the western States
there is a tree called the black walnut, which is employed
to a great extent in the manufacture of elegant furniture,
and has competed successfully with the imported wood
called mahogany.

With regard to the various classes of people engaged in
the lumbering business, throughout the Union, the most
numerous are called lumbermen. In all those regions where
the white pine and spruce and fir prevail, they form exten-
sive parties, and spend the winter in the dense forests, cut-
ting down trees and dragging the logs to the banks of the
streams ; and when spring comes, and the streams become
full of water, they drive the logs down the rivers, and in
immense quantities, all arranged in rafts, deliver them at
the saw-mills at the mouths of the streams and on navigable
waters, where the logs are turned into all kinds of lumber,
and thence shipped by vessels to various parts of the United
States as well as to foreign countries. Many of the mer-
chants or companies who employ these lumbermen do
business on a scale of great magnitude, and they not only
control the various operations in the interior, but are also
the owners of the mills where the lumber is made, as well
as many of the vessels employed in the carrying-trade. The
mills to which we have alluded are generally so located as
to be driven by water-power, and as they are very numerous
and extensive, they give employment to workmen of many
grades, who form a class quite distinct from that of lumber-
men. They are for the most part an intelligent and hardy
race of men, and fail not, when elections take place, to exert

FKONTIER LIFE AKD DEVELOPMENTS. 343

an important influence on the affairs of their own State or
those of the General Government.

As we pass into the pine-forests of Carolina, we tliere
find another state of affairs. In that region, the manufac-
ture of himber is carried on, as already stated, in conjunc-
tion with the production of tar, pitch, and turpentine, and
by far the largest proportion of the men employed were
formerly the colored people called slaves, but now known as
freedmen. There, as well as elsewhere, the prevailing busi-
ness is conducted by organized companies or by men of
ample means, who give employment, and a good support,
to large numbers of hard-working men. As to those who
live in the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, espe-
cially in Florida, and who prepare the live-oak timber for
use at the Navy Yards, — they are mostly men from the
north, with northern habits and constitutions, and are
exclusively employed by the General Government. They
also pursue their arduous labors in the winter-months, and,
like the lumbermen of New England, live in tents or cab-
ins, and on the plainest fare. As to the business of spar-
cutting in Alabama and Mississippi, it requires so little
sagacity, that it is chiefly carried on by those who own
the forest-lands ; but when we pass on to the northwest-
ern States, where the black walnut prevails, we there find
the business of lumbering fully organized, and the durable
and rich-looking wood carefully prepared for transportation
by steamboats or railroads to the markets on the Atlantic
coast. There is also an extensive lumber business done in
the Pacific States and Territories, and the "big trees" of
California have obtained a world-wide reputation.

JUDICIAL LIFE.

The Constitution provides that " The judicial power of
the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court,
and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time
to time ordain and establish." The Constitution further
defines and limits the judicial power as follows : " 1. The
judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity,
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other
public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and
maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the Uni-
ted States shall be a party ; to controversies between two
or more States, between a State and citizens of another
State, between citizens of different States, between citi-
zens of the same State claiming lands under grants of
different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof
and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls,
and those in w^hich a State shall be a party, the Supreme
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases
before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appel-
late jurisdiction both as to law and fact, with such excep-
tions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall
make."

JUDICIAL LIFE. 345

The Supreme Court being established by tlie Constitu-
tion, Congress has from time to time established the fol-
lowing additional "inferior courts" of the United States,
viz.: the Circuit Courts, the District Courts, the Court of
Claims, the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia,
the Territorial Courts, with the Supreme Court, constitute
the Judiciary of the United States. The outlines of their
powers, jurisdiction, etc., will be briefly presented as fol-
lows :

I. The Supreme Court. The original jurisdiction of the
Supreme Court is defined in the Constitution, as quoted.
Its appellate jurisdiction is also there defined, but is pro-
vided to be subject to exceptions and regulation by Con-
gress. This power Congress has exercised in the following
instances. Appeals from these Circuit Courts to the
Supreme Court, in civil actions, equity cases, and admi-
ralty and prize cases, are restricted to those in which the
matter in dispute exceeds the sum or value of two thou-
sand dollars, exclusive of costs. But this restriction does
not apply to patent, copyright, or revenue cases ; nor does
it affect appeals in criminal cases. Congress has also pro-
vided that the Supreme Court shall have appellate juris-
diction from judgments or decrees of the highest courts of
the several States, in suits w^here is drawn in question the
validity of a treaty or statute of, or an authority exercised
under, the United States, and the decision has been against
their validity ; or where is drawn in question the validity
of a statute of, or an authority exercised under, any State,
on the ground of their being repugnant to the Constitution,
treaties, or laws of the United States, and the decision is
in favor of such validity; or where any title, right, privi-

15*

346 LIFE A^T) KESOURCES 11^ AMERICA.

leo-e, or immunity is claimed under the Constitution, treat-
ies, or laws of the United States, and the decision is
against the title, rights, etc. But from the operations of
these provisions are excepted cases of persons held in the
custody of the military authorities of the United. States,
charged ^vith military offences, or with having aided or
abetted rebellion against the Government.

The Supreme Court sits at Washington, and holds one
annual session, commencing on the first Monday in
December, with such adjourned, or special terms as maybe
found necessary for the despatch of business. It consists
of a Chief- Justice and. eight Justices, who, in common
w^ith all the United States Judges, hold their offices during
good behavior. The salary of the Chief-Justice is eight
thousand five hundred dollars ; that of each of the Jus-
tices eight thousand dollars per annum. Six of the nine
constitute a quorum.

II. The Circuit Courts are nine in number; the United
States being divided into nine circuits, each comprising
three or more districts. Justices of the Supreme Court
are allotted by that Court to the several circuits, to assist
in holding the Circuit Courts. Each circuit has besides a
Circuit Judge with a salary of six thousand dollars ; with
the same power and jurisdiction as the Justice of the
Supreme Court allotted to the circuit. The Circuit Court
in each circuit is held by the Justice of the Supreme Court,
or by the Circuit Judge of the circuit, or by the
District Judge of the district — sitting alone; or by
the Justice of the Supreme Court and Circuit Judge sitting
together ; or (in the absence of either of them) by the
other and the district judge. Where two judges hold a

JUDICIAL LIFE. 347

Circuit Court, and differ in opinion, the law provides for a
special appeal to the Supreme Court. There are two an-
nual sessions of each Circuit Court, with special sessions for
the trial of criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Circuit
Courts is as follows: They have concurrent jurisdiction,
with the State Courts, of civil suits at common law and
equity, where the matter in dispute exceeds, exclusive of
costs, the sum or value of five hundred dollars, and where
the United States are plaintiffs or petitioners, or an alien
is a party (but not where both parties are aliens) ; or
Avhere the suit is between a citizen of the State in which
the suit is brought, and a citizen of another State. They
have exclusive jurisdiction of all crimes and offences cog-
nizable under the authority of the United States, except
of such as are within the jurisdiction of the District Courts,
and of those they have concurrent jurisdiction. They have
also original jurisdiction in all patent and copyright cases,
and their jurisdiction also extends to all cases arising un-
der the revenue laws. They are also invested with juris-
diction of certain classes of cases removed to them, under
special statutes, from the State Courts ; including suits be-
tween citizens of different States, suits against aliens, and
suits and prosecutions against military and other officers
of the Government. The Circuit Courts entertain appeals
from the District Courts in criminal cases, and in civil
cases where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of fifty
dollars.

III. The United States is further divided into districts,
for the holding of U. S. District Courts therein. A district
usually includes a single State; but the larger States are
divided into two or sometimes three districts. For each

34:8 LIFE AIs"D RESOURCES IN AMERICA.

district there is a District Judge, who holds four regular
sessions of the District Court annually. The salaries of the
District Judges are different in different parts of the coun-
try. The District Courts have original and exclusive
jurisdiction of admiralty and maritime cases, of cases of
seizures on land and water, under the laws of the United
States, and of suits brought for penalties and forfeitures
incurred under said laws. They have also jurisdiction, ex-
clusive of the State Courts, of suits against consuls, vice-
consuls, etc. They have also concurrent jurisdiction with
the Circuit Courts in cases of crimes and offences, not
capital, committed under the laws of the United States.
Also concurrent jurisdiction with such courts and the State
Courts of suits at common law, in which the United States,
or any officer thereof, may sue, under the authority of any
law of the United States. Also a similar junsdiction of
all suits by aliens, on account of (torts) in violation of the
laws of nations or a treaty of the United States.

IV. The Court of Claims sits in the Capitol at Washing-
ton, and commences its regular annual session on the same
day as the Supreme Court, viz.: the first Monday in Decem-
ber. It consists of a Chief- Justice and four Justices, with
a salary of four thousand dollars each. It has jurisdiction
of " all claims founded upon any law of Congress, or upon
any regulation of an executive department, or upon any
contract, express or implied, with the Government of the
United States, which may be suggested to it by a petition
filed therein, and also all claims which may be referred to
said court by either House of Congress ; "—also jurisdiction
of all counter-claims and demands, on the part of the
United States, against any persons making claim against

JUDICIAL LIFE. 349

the Government in said court; also jurisdiction of claims
to property captured or abandoned during the rebellion ;
also jurisdiction of tlie claims of disbursing officers of the
United States for relief from responsibility on account of
losses of public property by capture or otherwise while in
the line of duty; and of some other claims of less general
importance. The court is precluded from passing upon
claims for supplies taken, injuries done, etc., by United
States troops during the rebellion, and from rendering
judgment in favor of any claimant who has not been loyal
to the United States. Appeals may be taken by the
United States to the Supreme Court in all cases where the
judgment is adverse to the United States; and by the
claimant where the amount in controversy exceeds three
thousand dollars. This court is the only court of the U. S.
in which the United States can be directly sued as a
defendant.

V. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia con-
sists of a Chief- Justice and three other Justices, and holds
its sessions at the City Hall in Washington. The salary
of the Chief-Justice is four thousand five hundred dollars,
and of each of the other Justices four thousand dollars.
This court combines the general powers and jurisdiction
of a Circuit Court and a District Court. Any single one of
its judges is authorized to hold a District Court. Its juris-
diction extends only to civil proceedings instituted, and
crimes committed, in the District of Columbia; and to
cases of seizures on land and water made, and penalties
and forfeitures incurred, under the laws of the United
States within the same limits only. It entertains appeals
from the local justices of the peace and police courts; and

350 LIPE AXD RESOURCES IJT AMERICA.

its final judgments, orders, and decrees are subject to be
ajDpealed from to the Supreme Court of the United States.

YI. Territorial Courts. When a territorial government
is organized by Congress for any Territory, a judiciary is
provided, consisting generally of a Supreme Court of three
or more judges. District Courts, to be held by the Judges of
the Supreme Court separately, Probate Courts, and Justices'
Courts. The District Courts are invested with the jurisdic-
tion of the Circuit and District Courts of the United States ;
and an appeal is given from the District Courts to the
Supreme Court. An appeal is also provided from the
Supreme Court to the Supreme Court of the United
States, in the same manner as from a Circuit Court. When
a Territory is admitted into the Union as a State, these
courts cease to exist, being supplanted by the State Courts.

ADDITIO:XAL XOTES.

After the foregoing chapters on Religious and Edu-
cational Life had been printed, we obtained some later
official information on those subjects, which we append in
this place. In 1870 three States of the Union passed laws
compelling the education of all children with sound minds
and bodies. The total number of colleges in the country
is 368, of which 261 are supported by the different reli-
gious denominations. In these institutions there are 2,962
instructors and 49,827 pupils; in 99 of them males and
females are instructed, while the balance are confined to
males; and besides these, there are 136 institutions for the
superior instruction of females alone, in which there are
1,163 teachers and 12,841 pupils. Of medical schools,
there are 57; theological schools, 117; law schools, 40 ;
normal schools, 51 ; and business schools, 84. Connected
with these various institutions there are 180 libraries, with
2,355,237 volumes. The benefactions to educational objects
by private citizens were quite unparalleled in 1870, amount-
ing in the aggregate to $8,435,990. With regard to the
effect of education upon crime, we find that there was one
homicide to every 56,000 people, one to every 4,000 in the
Pacific States, and one to every 10,000 in the Southern
States. At least 80 per cent, of the crime of Xew Eng-
land is committed by those who have no education ; in all
parts of the country, 90 per cent, of the criminals were illite-
rate ; 75 per cent, were foreigners; and from 80 to 90 per
cent, connected their career of crime with intemperance.
From these figures, the conclusion is inevitable that igno-
rance breeds crime, and education is the remedy for the
crime that prevails.

352 LIFE AKD RESOURCES i:^ AMERICA.

In farther illustration of the preceding article on agricul-
ture, we append the following statement : The total value
of farm-products in the United States and Territories, dur-
ing the year ending June 31, 1870, according to the census,
was $2,445,000,000. The largest product was in the State
of New York, and the second largest in Illinois.

Now that this little book is finished, the mind of the
compiler naturally turns to take a single comprehensive
view of the great country which has been briefly described.
It is, indeed, one of the wonders of the century and of the
world. The extent of its domain and its unbounded re-
sources, the peaceful blending of its many nationalities,
the well-nigh unlimited diffusion of intelligence and knowl-
edge, and the free, cosmopolitan character of its people,
combine to give it a conspicuous position among the
nations. At the very moment when these closing lines arfe
being written, a Diplomatic Embassy from the Tenno of
Japan is on the point of visiting the city of Washington,
and the fact cannot but have made an impression on their
minds, that, after landing on the soil of America, they have
been compelled to travel more than three thousand miles
before reaching the metropolis. But when the Ambassa-
dors, and the other high officials who accompany them, are
informed as to the warm welcome Avhich is in store for
them from the Government of the United States, and
many of the leading men and corporations throughout the
Union, and when they shall have experienced the un-
bounded hospitality of the American people generally,
they will undoubtedly be deeply impressed, and effectually
convinced that America and Japan are strongly bound
together by the cords of sincere regard and unselfish
affection.

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