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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
US BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 143
HANDBOOK OF
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
JuLian H. Srewarp, Editor
Volume 6 PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Prepared in Cooperation With the United States Department of State as a Project of the Interdepartmental Committee on Scientific and Cultural Cooperation
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C Price 00
ETHSON Ig X FEB 11 1957
LIBRARY
yok » ih
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, BuREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D. C., June 15, 1948. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “Handbook of South American Indians. Volume6. Physical Anthro- pology, Linguistics, and Cultural Geography of South American Indians,” edited by Julian H. Steward, and to recommend that it be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Very respectfully yours, M. W. Sriruine, Chief. Dr. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Ill
CONTENTS
Seer y JUNAn EMO WAlO= 62222522 ba ese sa eek Seen oss ses Pee ena ERT ae eee nee ee A ala he Ree nCOrs Oy VOUUINe Ou 222522 nese aie eens eee eee ee CE RE Las Wet UDG HPI 21 CE a pn ee Pa eS The antiquity of man in South America, by Theodore D. McCown_-_
LET TINCTSTRE 0) 0 CS An 2 ie eee RIAA tes Cine: My Se ON, NS eal SPN nO
The present status of the theories concerning primitive man in Argen- iinabye Josduinskrenguelli_ =o 25- oSoek oe ete ee ek oe
DEY DUELS ETC 011 0 gy SENT ok le en i A a ee pe gee Tee Oe | ee
Pepcbowet oveical anthropolory 3... 1.2.22 2-S..22e2cce-hese ass eos Skeletal remains of South American Indians______________________ Anthropometry of South American Indian skeletal remains, by
i stowart sod. Marshall’ 1’. Newman..-22-2-.5.2s2 2.5. prio mia Taliive Seo oe Ses Sh ale 2, ee Esa eA Adee
Deformity, trephining, and mutilation in South American Indian
skeletal remaims, by T. D. Stewart... ..-..-.....-..2-.-.-
aE UG LISS TGC 0h ere ey ON pm cee ee ge vay IN Fo co, Sines
Pathological changes in South American Indian skeletal remains,
TPL ROL WELG Ste ee re See eh pe ee ISTONOPTADNG) 6 ye eee ee el ee re Bo beg
Cephalic deformations of the Indians in Argentina, by José Im-
IBMORTAD yc ete Sos eo ee ee eh wee Se themiying South American Indians. ..2..- 226.222 22c2<.cscheo<5 Anthropometry of South American Indians, by Morris Steggerda_ Pristine ap tyice ae sel a ne pee SE a vie Anthropometry of the Indians of Brazil, by José Bastos d’Avila_ NGrOduChiGn <a be eeoe ee a ey Soe The distribution of anthropometric types_____________-_-- GMO pray Nye ak in ae Le eee ee Ph ee. atts
The pigmentation and hair of South American Indians, by Morris UCP ORE Le era en ae eas eee ee gen a SIGUE OO Eee PSone 2 Ore eee SS yg
Rye Color aii @chObM hts tan tw ate Oe es ke ek gs ge Vat COLOM amu ORE: 2284 ee mers poet ae Lee ey ee IDO pra pyc S ee Nee es ee a ee Se 8 eel ees Se Blood groups of South American Indians, by William C. Boyd_- SITIO GT ALY, oes ee rd ed ee ele Se Neh on a ee
The basal metabolic rates of South American Indians, by Elsie A.
DIDUOPT Ay! 2 Semen e ee eek ey A pebe ere mag Ree i is LP PipnneAtnOTICaM (MERbIZ08 = 2 ee 2) Ne ee hs ee Mestizos of South America, by Morris Steggerda___________--- SIGN: oe ey RD a ee ee ee Brazilian Mestizo types, by Maria Julia Pourchet______-__-__- PvE E AO eee Rae Sas yee ee ete Se 9 SR A ee
Vi CONTENTS
Part 2 Physical anthropology—Continued PAGE he physical anthropology of Chile. =. 5322222222222 5222 2025 121 The anthropometry of the Indians of Chile, by Carlos Henckel__ 121 The: Ona (Shel kisi) 0k eee es 121 The Yahgan' (Vamana)2t=2 2 lee ae ee eee 124 The vAlacalute (lalakywrlup) ies se eee ee eee 127 Natives) of the southern'provincesiss2 2222522222 eee eee 129 The‘ Indians of North Chiles 223222253255 ee 133 Bibliography. 2" 2922244 sSeese 5 S285 See ee 135 The geographical pathology of Chile, by Ernesto Herzog_--_-_-__- 137 Bibhography 22 24352 Sak re ee 144
The physical anthropology of the internal organs among the races of Chile; by Carlos Henckel. 2 > s1 aie ee ee ee 145 IntroductiOns. 232254 22-22 32 Ae eee 145 Digestive appatatugs «2-525 222 s5 222 sess e eke ee ee 145 Respiratory system oo ee ee eee 147 Circulatory systems 22> 25-6 e e e eee 148 Endocrine system: 222-22 2-2 eae ese eee see ee see eS 150 Urogenital systema = 251s ee se ee eee 150 INervousisystemsoas36 258 on see a ae Se eee 151 Bloodseroups2s22a2e 22 ease aS eee ee 151 Bibliopraphy 222. =.+ 54 426s 52 ea es eee ee ee ee 152 Glossaty )-238= sce soe ah ee ee ee ee eee 152 Part 3. The languages of South American Indians, by J. Alden Mason!__ 157 Part 4. Geography and plant and animal resources____-__------------- 319 Geography of South America, by Carl O. Sauer_.__-_-------------- 319 1 B=) U2) alee gee ee ea a aay peep a nr a Ry se aaah St nel 319 ‘Theveastern hishlands): 9.252 0222555" se eee eee 319 Rinexcontinent allows ery G ses ee a ee ee ee eee ee 323 ‘The. Patagonian Platesuc.c 22-5322 552 Se >- Se Sea ee 325 The western cordilleras and lowlands_-_------------------- 325 Climate and: veretation 2-0 Ab eee ee 331 Tropical rain forest (Af and Am climates) -_-------------- 331 The Montafia (border of A and C climates in the Andes)_-_ 333 Tropieal savanna (AW) 2-2 Se ee ee eee 334 Steppes and desertds<42255254245 225524 (eer eee 336 Andean climate and vegetation__-__...-._--.------------ 338 Humid temperate lands of the south.__-_..-------------- 340 Fauna and ethnozoology of South America, by Raymond M. Gilmore. 345 Introduction jas o32 Sos ee ee oe ere 345 Purpose and) scopes 9422 2223255 2e ee ee eee 345 Definition of Neotropical regione. 21.52 5422202 5222 ee 348 General fauna’ of Neotropieac= 2-2) (22252. 22-22 349 History, of Neotropical fauna: 22 322-2252-2- 222) eee 350 Ecologic and zoogeographic divisions of Neotropica_ ------- 353 Fauna of Neotropics. 2-222 522225 2s05e 2 eee 363 General A: 252. 2s ee eee ee 363 Manimals"( Mammalia) 542s sak eee eee 363 Birds! (Aves)= 345222 ee ee ee 383 Reptiles (Reptilia): <2 22s" 2s eee 400 Amphibians (Amphibia). 2. 42 236-0-2--- o2 eee 407
1 For detailed contents of this paper, see p. 157.
CONTENTS VIL
Parr 4. Geography and plant and animal resources—Continued Fauna and ethnozoology of South America, by Raymond M, Gilmore—Con.
Fauna of Neotropica—Continued PAGE inishesp(bisces) Smee ee) oe ke ee eee se SUN ec ace 408 Arthropods (Arthropoda): Crustaceans, insects, arachnids... 415 Molluskes(Mollusca) =2eris= 22s 22s 25 2S. sot eo es se see 422 Hchinoderms)(Hchinodermata).—-- = 225-222. 2 See 423
IMOMESTICALECE AMIN AS = ete ere a ee ee oe ee eS aa 423 Llama, alpaca, guanaco, vicufia (South American camelids).. 429 The domesticated cavy, ‘‘guinea pig’”’ (Cavia porcellus)...._-- 454 The Muscovy duck (Catrina moschata) _....-------------- 460
"SU IEPEIPI-D UPLANDER cis Sele SP tat meer yy Rp em CE 462
meknowledgments ANd .SOUTCES.-...-25---.22-<2.=s--e-2-22-— 463
Bolin to hye Se ee aes oe eee ee ees eee ee 463
The use of wild plants in tropical South America, by Claude Lévi-
SHEET TSS) ge Re SE a ee eee ee ee a te eee 465 TET OCLC 10 Time re eee ae res tps ee ie ee Ot en 465 “TL ESL Y SOUT Psa ae AE a eee eee ee ae 469 BIT CLAW OOG esse ae oe a re es Sie rere ee es Sa See ee ais 473 VOGT AS ete ee alls Sa ae i En ge ee ees ee ee eee ee 474 LSS DECEIT ESTEVE aS RE A RN a ae 475 GUIMSPANOITeSINS S226 eee ae awe erie te oe e ee lee ae 476 COIS TEES ROTTS a ee a ee a ee eee ea 477 inet pora MOCO VCS 8 Aas eC eee ee ee oa ce ee 477 rS PESETaRG OYSTER ee ree Se ge ere Sere tree oe 479 TERY Oe peg SS eR a ANE IS ee NSF yt erty cee oe a ee 479 JOG O(C EE eS IRS a a Ee Pad pe ee ee en eee ee ee 479 1D echo $as} Dye iat OR ee Sen ea ee ae ee ee 482 (Cero EAS 0 ST a SI Sa PaaS cs Ae ol 20 8 yee eo ope 482 J EROS ESL OS ANSE ee Oy SA ASRS Te eee eee 483 BINT CR CIT Ss teste a ly ae Er 484 LENCO SEES S Lik eee a ee eS As ce eee ee eee 486
Cultivated plants of South and Central America, by Carl O.Sauer__-_ 487
introductione 2225 == we Ann SC gee = Sie. ee ee ee 487
TY LEEW ey eg I Se A le as A ee pe ae 489
EERSEE BCCU: CRONIN Se cts See We es Ree ae 495
ID CAN Sa ee ae Sy ene ee SY Be Bah ot as a om ERs 498
MTG RCUG UE DIGS = eck eats eee em ie eee OF BA a he 504
ARrOplealeTOOLIChOpse ] ae eee! ame eae Sete ee ee 507
eos crops of temperate lands. =. ee 25 ee as 512
OO Crops OF coolands sae ea ee eae Fee ee eee 513
Garden plants of the nightshade family___._.____._.------------ 519
Cuitivated truitsand nutse sens = eae ee ee eee ee ee 524
CUE) 0 21 Se Re ee RI © PSC FE SY IT oper ee aN eer Se Ne Sree ee 533
Mishellancous Plante... 5025220 oS ee ee dee ee cam 538
BAMORT EDN Gee toe rte Oe See ae ep ee ae a eee 543
oy vermeil ile igi ch Dy esiatate i ator nine ie Sp na 545
ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES
PAGE 1. The Ecuadorean Punfn skull (frontalis and lateralis)_._......-------- 2 2. The Brazilian Confins skull (frontalis and lateralis)_._..___._...------ 2 Jo bolasand human teeth trom AT Cen plies ee ee 18 4. Stone and bone points from Miramar, Buenos Aires_-_-_----------- 18 5. Skull from Cerro Tablayo, Colombia (lateralis and frontalis) __-___---- 34 6. Skull from Patagonia, Argentina (lateralis and frontalis)__.-____---- 34 7. Skull from Tiahuanaco, Bolivia (lateralis and frontalis)_._._.___.-_-_---- 34 8. Skull from Lake Tacarigua, near Maracay, Venezuela (lateralis and verticalis)\ 2a 2. le he ae ne ce ane eee ee een ane ee 34 +. Trephined skulls'from Peri s2 525222 Saas oe a ee 50 i. (Surgical and dental use of. gold 552" * =e Sees eee ee ee 50 11. Deformed skulls from Chicama Valley, Perf.....-___..._---------- 50 12. Pelvis and femora from Chimu region, Peri, showing arthritus de- fOTMANS se oo ee ee Bee eee eee ee eee ee 50 18. Types of Argentine cranial deformation_-_---......--------------=-- 54 14. Apparatus for cranial deformation, Argentina__..______------------- 54 15. Central American, Guiana, and Upper Xingt physical types_------- 66 16. Indians of the Upper ‘Xinetand the Chacon! -*-* = oo 22 ee 66 17. Indians of the Guianas, Montafia, Upper Xingd, and northwest Amazonsi-2 >>... > 52 oe 2 eee ee eee Se ee eee 66 18. Indians cf the northwest Amazon and the Chaco______-_------------ 66 19. Indians of the Mato Grosso and the Ecuadorean Montafia---------- 66 Ar. Andean and “Chaco physical ty pes=.- 2225224 se5eass ees eee 66 21. Patagonian and Fuegian pitysicaltypesis 2222225222252 =3ee eee = 66 22. Patagonian and Fuepian physical types: 2222 22=225s25 2222-22 see 66 Zo. Lagoa Santa skull (lateralis and frontalis)- 22225522222 2-32 22-52 2228 82 24. Physical types of Tierra del Puego.. =.=. oe see oes ee eee 130 25. One skulls, Tierra del Fuego. 222222 2e peer ee 130 26. Skulls from southern Chile. _ oso 222 s52S522 Stee ee eee 130 21. Physical types trom southern’ Chile: c.- = ss2S822eo522 2 =e 130 26. soutien Chile= 2? 223252 o ol 82 O's ee an eee ee eee 338 25. Northers Clitle: - 220 2-52 fc 2 a eee eee eee eee 338 30. The Chilean Atacama and the Bolivian altiplano_-____------------- 338 31. The Chilean Atacama, Lake Titicaca, and Arequipa____------------ 338 g2. The Peruvian Andes - 2" 235425. 50 25. oe eee eee 338 de., Lhe Pentvian and Chilean’ Coastal desert =— "22. 2-2 oS eee 338 oA. Andean veretation types2 oo 557282224...) 2 ee Se eee 338 35., Peruvian and. Heuadorean tlandseapes:>~ > 2-2-2 22=+2-2-22_~ 2 Sse 338 ao: Monkeys, rodents, and deerts25*= 228s +ebes ee ies eee 434 ai. Gisnt anteater and ocelot: 22. 22222 22 * sce eet net eee eee 434 3s: Rodents ‘and pecearies: o> 1222s SS tet ee oo. Manatee; ianir, and ,eH0ss <= 22. os ok ee ee eee 434 G0! SRedertis ee ee ee eae ee hh ee ee ee ee 434 41 Rodents anG hahj ie. se eee ee a 434 42° (Mammals. “papeile, BNO Dir. 2222. oso ee es oe aece ee 434 45.) DRA AT ADR ORRSG 2c a ok Be eee lo ke eee 434
viir
CONTENTS
PLATES PeeVICUTI AT aAMGyNUANACOL. =. 8 = ays sect We OP CR VESTER FS aan ec eo a ee ee ee PECTORIS Il Stree fo en ate ae re Es ae ER ee ee ee De Beetle fishes) ANG MNRKEW6 2 to) Yoel es fe oes 2k oe 2a kL tse kes
FIGURES
1. Diagram of geological column of the Argentine Pampa. --__-___-----_-_ 2. Diagram showing the application of head-flattening apparatus, the
Pyicbrada de humanised s. 2456 5022-8 oo ate = Slee og 2, LAUUUBWES ya Leo ee oe ec er a
MAPS
1. Base map of South America showing locations of cranial series listed rary {REED 0 Ky Se 5 Ne a el phone
2. Generalized distribution of the extremes of the mean height index in SOUp HPAI EN Camere mee eee ett eee nee ren renee means er ee et ey. ee oe
3. Generalized distribution of the extremes of the cranial module in South AmmieriCne 255.2 seUtoi ot ts ee So a as eseewe ees
4. Distribution of stature among South American Indians______-_--__ 5. Distribution of cephalic index among South American Indians__-_-_-_. 6. Apparent blood-group distribution among South American Indians__ Peeenel Map or SOUL AMenca 22.) i 2oesee So lee oe Se ese S. Geognostic map-of South Americas. =--. 2-22. enn eee eek or Climates. of South+Ameritant co. 2202)05 A. eh oe se soe cesnnsne2 ok roe Vepetation-of South-America... sees eo oe ele tke sy kb ioe 11. Zoogeographic subregions of Neotropica_-___-_._-..__-------------- PGRN ULION Gr GHG MAI. 2202 eet te 22 eS SL ee ee ie es ribUbiON OF (HG alpaea == 20 Sao ace ee See a oe en Pe IsLributionvor the PURBNACOL .242 2o0he 2 oe ee TaaeDistrbutionlomebexvicuiias: 28.22 stee Soe he) pee i ee ee
Wee Distribution of the wild Muscovy ducks 22252. 22-- 65-22 18. Tribal and linguistic distributions of South America. (Color map in pocket.)
148
PREFACE
The plan and scope of the Handbook of South American Indians and explanations of previous volumes have been given in each vol- ume. This, the sixth and last volume, was originally planned as a part of Volume 5, but had to be held for later publication because of rising printing costs; the index to all six volumes will be published separately.
Like Volume 5, which was devoted to the ethnology of the South American Indians, the articles in this volume are arranged topically and deal with all of South America; but, unlike Volume 5, they cover fields of anthropological research not presented in the preceding vol- umes or only touched on lightly.
The articles on ancient man in South America in Part 1 give excellent summaries of this little-known subject. McCown’s résumé deals with the entire continent, while Frenguelli’s discusses Argentina, whose able archeologists have long taken a deep interest in the subject. The somewhat different conclusions reached by these authors show the need for more research on this important subject and for a common understanding on methodology.
Data on physical anthropology were excluded from the first four volumes of the Handbook and will be found in Part 2 of the present volume. The articles on anthropometry by Stewart, Newman, Steg- gerda, Bastos d’Avila, and Henckel; on deformities, trephining, and mutilations by Stewart; on cephalic deformations by Imbelloni; on pathological changes by Stewart; on pigmentation and hair by Steg- gerda; and on Mestizos by Steggerda and by Pourchet are standard summaries of available knowledge on these subjects. The articles on blood groups by Boyd and on basal metabolic rates by Wilson sum- marize the meager work heretofore done on these topics. Many other subjects, though coming within the scope of physical anthropology in recent years, have been omitted for lack of sufficient research. Ar- ticles by two Chilenos, however, ‘The Geographical Pathology of Chile,” by Ernesto Herzog, and ‘‘The Physical Anthropology of the Internal Organs Among the Races of Chile,” by Carlos Henckel, repre- sent new approaches. Some day these subjects may be treated on a continental scale. The bibliographic references additional to those cited by the authors of articles on physical anthropology and the antiquity of man in South America have been added by Dr. T. D. Stewart, editor of Part 2.
The field of South American linguistics is particularly difficult, not only because of the great diversity of Indian languages but because
x
PREFACE XI
many languages are already extinct and but few of those which sur- vive have been adequately recorded. Previous classifications, such as those of Schmidt, Chamberlain, Rivet, and Loukotka, are in serious disagreement with one another as to the classification of many import- ant groups. In Part 3 of the present volume, J. Alden Mason has done a monumental job of ascertaining the best modern opinion on the linguistic affiliation of each South American tribe and preparing an up-to-date classification. Time permitted very little original re- search on the relationship between groups which now appear to be linguistically isolated. The 75 or more now isolated languages will undoubtedly be reduced in the future, and affiliations with Central and North American languages will certainly be established. Such regroupings, however, will require years of research in comparative studies, which in turn must rest upon adequate field material gathered from surviving linguistic groups.
The tribal map (map 18), on which the linguistic map is superim- posed, was compiled by the editor from the data contained in the first four volumes of the Handbook. The tribes are located where they were first reported by the Whites. In the Antilles and coastal areas of South America, their whereabouts was recorded during the first half century of the Conquest; in some of the more remote areas, such as parts of Mato Grosso, the tribes were unknown until the past 50 years. In order to combine tribes and languages on a single map, it was necessary to draw tribal boundaries. In most cases, these boundaries are fairly arbitrary; in some, where tribes were intermixed or had interlocking distributions, the lines drawn on the map falsify the picture. It is necessary, however, to simplify such detail and to have definite boundaries at which the language colors stop.
On the whole, map 18 agrees with those published in previous volumes; but, as certain conflicts between the other maps had to be reconciled and as many locations had to be plotted on the American Geographical Society millionth maps, the editor takes full responsi- bility for the present tribal map.
Both the linguistic classification and the tribal map are deeply indebted to the late Dr. Curt Nimuendaji. Dr. Nimuendaji went to Brazil in 1906, and, though he first explored the tropical forests as an engineer and cartographer, his deep interest in and sympathy for the Indian soon led him to make anthropological studies. During the past 40 years, his contributions to the anthropology of Brazil have surpassed those of Koch-Grinberg, Von den Steinen, and the few other ethnologists who have done serious work in South America. As a linguist, he furnished data for many new classifications; as a cartographer and ethnologist, he provided the basic tribal maps for most of eastern Brazil.
XII PREFACE
Part 4, Geography and Plant and Animal Resources, provides a background for the cultural articles. Carl Sauer’s article on “The Geography of South America” describes the natural landscape. Raymond M. Gilmore’s “Fauna and Ethnozoology of South America”’ is an entirely original work, giving taxonomic and ecological data on both the wild and domesticated animal resources of native South America. It also provides an excellent summary of the problem of domestication of the llama, alpaca, guanaco, vicufia, guinea pig, and Muscovy duck. Claude Lévi-Strauss’ appraisal of the wild plants of value to the Indian in tropical South America is a very original and highly useful summary of the considerable plant resources, many of which are of great importance also to the modern population of the country.
Carl Sauer’s article on the South American native domesticated plants is the most complete summary of this subject yet published. Sauer includes the findings of plant geneticists, whose work is not only placing taxonomy on a more sure basis but is providing important clues to crop origins and history. For example, the genetic connection of such a plant as Peruvian cotton with Old World species throws new light on theories of transoceanic influences on New World cultures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For supplying the illustrations contained in this volume, we are indebted to the following individuals and institutions: Carlos Henckel, Joaquin Frenguelli, José Imbelloni, R. M. Gilmore, Clark Yeager, Sulo Sihvonen, Joao Moojen de Oliveira, Rollo H. Beck, Jonathan Sauer, J. B. Lippencott Co., the United States National Museum, the National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C., and the New York Zoological Society.
As in previous volumes, our gratitude must be expressed to the Strategic Index of the Americas, Yale University, and to the Trans- lating Bureau, United States Department of State, for translating several of the articles. The editors translated others of the articles.
We are particularly grateful to Senhora Maria Alice Moura Pessoa of the Museu Nacional de Rio de Janeiro for performing the tremen- dous task of preparing the linguistic map, under the general direction of Dr. J. Alden Mason. Special thanks are also due Dr. Mason for classifying and tabulating the languages of South America, a task of inconceivable magnitude, and to Dr. T. D. Stewart for serving as editor of the section on physical anthropology. We are also grateful to Mr. John Buoncristiani, for preparing the base map used for the geographical, linguistic, and other principal maps, and to Dr. Robert West for helping assemble the geographic data entered on the geo- graphical maps.
JuLIAN H. Stewarp, Editor.
CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 OF THE HANDBOOK OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Jos& Bastos p’Avina, Centro de Pesquisas Educacionais, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Wituram C. Boyp, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts.
Joaquin FRENGUELLI, Instituto del Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina.
Raymonp M. Gitmorn, Unted States National Museum, Smith- soman Institution, Washington, D. C.
Carios Huncxet, Instituto de Histologia y Embriologta, Universidad de Concepcidn, Concepcién, Chile.
Ernesto Herzoe, Instituto de Anatomia Patoldgico, Universidad de Concepcién, Concepceidn, Chile.
José ImpeLioni, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Cuaupe Liétvi-Srrauss, Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes, New School for Social Research, New York, New York.
J. ALDEN Mason, The University Museum, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
THroporE D. McCown, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, California.
MarsHauu T. Newman, United States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
Jutia Maria Pourcuet, Centro de Pesquisas Educacionais, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Cart O. Saunr, Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, California.
Morris Sreaeurpa,! Hartford Seminary Foundation, Hartford, Con- necticut.
T. Date Stewart, United States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
Este A. Witson, Nutritional Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Boston, Massachusetts.
1 Deceased.
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VOLUME 6. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY, LINGUISTICS, AND CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
PART 1. ANCIENT MAN THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA
By Turopore D. McCown
A hundred years of collecting and laboratory research concerning the problem of the antiquity of man in South America has provided no incontestable published evidence of high antiquity for any manner of hominid on that continent. This is not an opinion; it is the result of methodically testing the alleged evidence in the form of discoveries of human skulls or bones or the products of human workmanship against a set of standards that in other parts of the world have proved their merit and utility by repeated and successful use in the fields of geology and human paleontology in separating the genuine facts from the spurious or imaginary ones. ‘The unimpeachable occurrence, or especially a succession of occurrences, of human bones or human artifacts in a geological formation concerning whose several parts geologists are agreed upon as to their time relations affords the most secure evidence upon which the investigator of paleoanthropological problems may work. Where the foregoing type of geological evidence of antiquity fails, the comparative analysis of well excavated verte- brate faunas, especially mammalian ones, provides the next best evidence of the age of the deposits yielding human remains. The validity of the method of interfaunal analysis needs no defense, but it can have no secure basis unless one member of the items compared is datable in terms of an accepted geological succession, and it too often fails to provide as definite chronological information as does the data of geology. Use of the same method involving the study of the morphology of the human remains, or the comparative analysis of artifact assemblages, provides another category of evidence. This must take third position, however, because it is too frequently the outcome of uncritical or biased use, or misunderstanding, of the methodology which produces it, not because it is of less intrinsic value.
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The osseous human remains and the artifacts of human manufac- ture which we have to examine have been accumulated mainly by European and South American scientists over a period of about 100 years. Two principal areas have provided the greater part of the material. The first and the most important from the standpoint of quantity of material is the Argentine one with Buenos Aires Province in first position. New specimens continue to appear, particularly from the formations which form the south coast of the province, while the growth of the educational centers in the cities of Rosario, Santa Fé, Tucumdn, Cérdoba, and Mendoza seems directly related to the increasing number of discoveries of ‘‘fossil’? man or his culture in the Argentine hinterland. The bulk of this paleoanthropological material, however, was collected in the years between 1875 and 1915, either through the efforts of Florentino and Carlos Ameghino or as a result of the world-wide interest they aroused in the question of man’s antiquity in Argentina. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego perhaps should form a special zone to the South of the Argentine one proper. Among recent investigations in this area, Bird’s (1938 a, 1938 b) careful work in habitation sites deserves close attention. ‘The modesty with which his conclusions have been presented rather obscures the importance of the data.
The second region is more compact geographically and lies in the highlands of Minas Gerais Province in Brazil about 250 miles north and a little west of Rio de Janeiro. The Danish explorer Lund col- lected extensively in the caves of the Lagoa Santa district of Minas Gerais between 1835 and 1844. The human material recovered by Lund was, with the exception of one skull which is in Rio de Janeiro (Lacerda and Peixoto, 1876), transported to Europe, where the larger part was acquired by the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen. Eighty-five years later, in 1926, further investiga- tions of the caves were initiated by the Museu Nacional of Rio de Janeiro (Walter et al., 1937) and have since been continued by the Academy of Sciences of Minas Gerais situated at Bello Horizonte, The remaining paleoanthropological material from South America is scattered and possesses unity only insofar as it is putatively ancient.
The literature, both special and general, which is concerned with the antiquity of man and his artifacts in South America is voluminous. No attempt has been made to present an inclusive bibliography. The older literature up to 1910-11 is fully presented by Hrdliéka et al. (1912), while Quenstedt and Quenstedt (1936) cover both the older and the newer literature through 1934. The bibliography ac- companying Simpson’s paper (1940 b) should be consulted for the geological and nonhuman paleontological literature. Vignati (1941)
PuatTeE 1.—The Ecuadorean Punin skull (frontalis and lateralis). (Courtesy American Museum of Natural History.)
Puatr 2.—The Brazilian Confins skull (frontalis and lateralis). (From ‘Early Man,” 1937, courtesy The Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, and J. B. Lippincott Company.)
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gives a useful critical bibliography mainly concerned with the dis- coveries at Miramar (Buenos Aires Province) but also includes a large number of other fundamental papers. Hrdliéka (1935 b) presents an excellent bibliography in the general field of native American racial origins. Unless otherwise indicated, the citations included in the above papers or memoirs are not listed in the bibliography which accompanies this study. The “Bibliography of Fossil Vertebrates’’ (Camp and Vanderhoof, 1940; Camp et al., 1942), Sellards’ papers (1940, 1947), and the “Bibliographie Américaniste’”’ published an- nually in the Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris have proved valuable sources.
A sober and disinterested consideration of the many publications describing the original material demonstrates that little real progress in reaching positive answers to the basic problems has been made in the last 35 years. Especially in Argentina, the status of the problem as of the year 1910 and the lines along which further work might be done were fully and fairly set forth by Hrdliéka, Holmes, Wright, Fenner, and Willis (1912) and their conclusions need be but briefly recapitulated here. It is only in a negative sense that progress can be described. The Ameghinian scheme of human evolution based upon hominid material derived from Miocene and later strata is not now generally accepted by any serious student. The Tetraprothomo atlas and femur came from what Ameghino regarded as the base of the Upper Miocene. When subjected to critical examination, the atlas proved to be inseparable morphologically from the same bone among modern races and more particularly the native American ones. The femur is indisputably nonhominid and may reasonably be con- sidered as derived from a member of the Procyonidae (Bordas, 1942; Cabrera, 1936). Ameghino’s views concerning the human remains of Pliocene age have suffered a variety of revisions. The most im- portant is the clear demonstration, principally by Hrdlitka, of their unquestioned inclusion well within the limits of variation among the modern types of man, particularly American Indians. This is now generally admitted by modern workers although there persists a strong tendency to emphasize the “‘primitive’’ features of the morphol- ogy of new human osseous specimens. In large part, this tendency is a natural consequence of the assumed geological antiquity of the material.
The age of the Pampean and post-Pampean formations has been generally revised upward. A recent review by Simpson (1940 b) is concerned primarily with the Tertiary formations and is essential to an understanding of what seems to me to be the primary test of antiquity: agreement as to the geological succession and the time rela- tions of the respective units. On Kraglievich’s scheme, specimens
79477—50——2
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ranging from the Monte Hermosan to the lower Pampean are of Pliocene age. Frenguelli, on the other hand, seems to resolve the improbabilities of Pliocene forms of Homo sapiens by regarding the Monte Hermosan, Chapadmalalan, and the whole of the Pampean formations as Pleistocene in time. The addition to these uncertain- ties of the fact that the conditions under which both the older and the newer specimens occur are usually susceptible of more than one interpretation leads to the same negative and pessimistic conclusions which Hrdli¢ka and others reached over 30 years ago.
As specific examples let us examine two instances, both described by Professor Vignati (1931 a, 1934, 1941) with technical ability and a wealth of detail. The first concerns the fossil man of Esperanza, an incomplete skull and skeleton found casually in 1919 in the bank of the Rio Salado north of Santa Fé. It is not apparent that any trained investigator was responsible for the original removal of the remains before they were translated to Buenos Aires. The deposit from which the skeleton was obtained is considered to be equivalent to the Lujanan and of Late Pleistocene age by Frenguelli (Vignati, 1934, p. 12, note 2). The Lujanan is usually regarded as post-Pampean (Recent) by other workers. Dr. Frenguelli discovered in the same region, but at a different locality, an ‘‘arrow point” formed from a cervid antler tip. The original publication concerning this artifact (Vignati, 1931 a) de- scribes it as coming from the Ensenadan (basal Pleistocene according to Simpson), but it is included in the report on the human fossil (Vig- nati, 1934 a) as a sample of Esperanza man’s handicraft and is, in con- sequence, assigned a Late Pleistocene date. The possibilities of a burial having been made in an older deposit are never considered. The mere presence in the same horizon of some extinct mammals is not decisive as to age. The initial assumptions that a human skeleton was in some fashion naturally incorporated in a Late Pleistocene stra- tum can readily be seen to rest on not one solid piece of evidence.
The second instance concerns the two ‘‘fossil’? human teeth from Miramar (Vignati, 1941); really an occasion which Professor Vignati has taken to review the finds from the Chapadmalalan (Chapal- malense) horizon along the seacoast of Buenos Aires Province. Fol- lowing Frenguelli, this formation is considered to be of Pleistocene age, although there is better evidence for regarding it as Late Pliocene. There is no reason to doubt that the two human molars came from the Chapadmalalan stratum but the assumption is made that they were incorporated in the deposit by natural processes in the course of its formation. Too easily is it forgotten that for at least 50 millenia men have lavished varying degrees of ingenuity on the problem of disposing of their dead. Interment in the earth has few analogies among normal geological processes; rather it seems to be at complete variance with
Vol. 6] ANTIQUITY OF MAN—McCOWN 5 them and at the same time the results are not always easy to distin- guish. The long controversy over the East African Oldoway skeleton is one well-known instance which is now happily settled.
Bailey Willis (Hrdlicka et al., 1912) four decades ago made a series of suggestions concerning further investigation of the various parts of the Pampean. These envisaged a combination of strati- graphic, petrographic, and climatic studies that in their essentials are similar to the studies made by Wayland (1934), Nilsson (1932), and others in East Africa. The paleoanthropological literature con- cerned with ancient man in South America gives no evidence that either anthropologists or geologists have systematically undertaken such studies. Granting that the evidences of man’s handiwork and his own bones have not been adventitiously introduced into the Chapadmalalan, we still have no convincing explanation of how they were incorporated in the deposit. Whether one considers the Chap- admalalan Pliocene or Pleistocene is of minor import in this connection, for the human remains would still be the earliest known evidence of hominids from any part of the world, and yet not archaic members of the Hominidae but quite positively Homo sapiens. The accumulating evidence with regard to man’s evolution obtained in the Old World makes the above situation improbable in the extreme. Consequently, the extended comparisons of the two molar teeth leading to the con- clusion that they represent a species of man distinct from Homo sapiens and attributed to the Homo neogaeus of Lehmann-Nitsche seems a labor of doubtful value.
Recent years show some slackening in the rush to describe new “Paleolithic” industries. Perhaps in this field, more than any other, greater abuses were made of translating the data of form and function of implements into evidence for time relationships with the Old World, Sellards’ fine paper (1940) gives evidence of what has been accom- plished as it relates to the same problem in North America.
The Brazilian discoveries of ancient man which include the Lagoa Santa crania and skeletal parts and the Confins man (pl. 2) (Walter et al., 1937) have a putative antiquity based not on pure geological evidence but on their association with certain Pleistocene ‘“‘type”’ mammals. Hrdlitka (Hrdlit¢ka et al., 1912) has gone fully and criti- cally into the question of the fossil-mammal associations with the human remains. The undoubted association of man with certain mammals that are more characteristic of the Pleistocene period than of the present-day fauna is no longer a matter of serious dispute (Sellards, 1940, 1947). Colbert’s review (1942) of these associations in the New World as a whole underlines this proposition, but he succinctly
! For a brief introduction to the African literature, see Leakey (1926), especially the bibliography to Chapter I. Outstanding work along the same lines has been done in north India and China,
6 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. E. Bull. 143
points out that the paleontologist’s current view holds this to mean that some Pleistocene ‘‘type’” elements of the fauna survived into Holocene times, not that man, especially Homo sapiens, was neces- sarily ancient in any part of the New World. Bird’s evidence (1938 b) and Uhle’s (1930) report on the Alangasi mastodon also incline one to this view. Both Simpson and Colbert in the previously mentioned papers indicate what any reflective student knows: the concept of a Pleistocene-Holocene ‘‘boundary”’ is primarily a classificatory one and not a physical reality. The attempts to give chronological precision to the several and regionally varying phases of the transition from Pleistocene to recent times and their indifferent success again em- phasizes the desirability of working backward from the known to the unknown when the time units are centuries and not scores of millennia.
The above considerations do not affect the importance of the Lagoa Santa skulls ? as anthropological documents but they do raise serious questions, not yet settled, as to the imputed antiquity. Yet the presumptive antiquity of these specimens has played an important part in causing them to become the cornerstone of the most curious kind of intellectual edifice. That able and clever partisan, Paul Rivet, promoted them to racial status in 1908 * in connection with a description of 17 crania from rock shelters near Paltacalo in Ecuador. The suggestion that the Lagoa Santa crania represented a special type, long and high headed, was not original with Rivet, but to him belongs the distinction of presenting what has since passed as proof of the racial status of the type. The 17 Ecuadorean crania represent the 17 longest and highest-headed skulls of 78 undeformed and measurable crania collected from several sites of indeterminate age in southern Ecuador. Rivet explicitly disavows having “‘selected”’ his 17 skulls but it seems curious that the seriation of the cephalic indices coincides with the numerical seriation of the specimens. It is not surprising, therefore, to find a high degree of homogeneity among the 14 males of the 17 specimens. The metrical and indicial comparisons with the Lagoa Santa series (maximum size of series, 18 specimens, both male and female) is precisely set forth, and particu- larly in vault dimensions and indices the correspondences are quite close. The Paltacalo skulls have thus acquired a fuzzy aura of antiquity and the Lagoa Santa crania have become the homotypes of a new “race’’ consisting of about 35 examples.
2 The Confins discovery needs full and detailed publication. The brief reports (Walter et al., 1937) gave promise of resolving in part the lacunae in Lund’s evidence (Hrdlitka et al., 1912) but there appears to be some difference of opinion in Brazil with regard to the significance of the Confins specimen (Serrano, 1938, p. 86).
3 Hrdlitka (1935 b) gives a full bibliography on this matter, while the earlier studies of the Lagoa Santa material is covered exhaustively in ‘‘Early Man in South America” (Hrdlitka, Holmes, et al., 1912). Rivet expounds his views fully and with no essential modifications in ‘‘Los origines del Hombre Ameri- cano’”’ (1943 b).
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The next step is a reexamination and revision of the racial position of the Pericue skulls and osteological material from Baja California which Rivet published in 1909. The Pericue series, 18 crania, are put through their paces and shown to be unquestionably one branch of the Lagoa Santa race, but they also have resemblances to the narrow, high, and small-headed “race”? of Melanesia and Australia. The implication is that the racial relationship is an ancient one; here again the Lagoa Santa material extends its inferred high antiquity to still another situation, this time in North America.
The further developments in this interesting intellectual construc- tion are faithfully set forth by Hrdlit¢ka (1935 b). These involve linguis- tic and cultural evidence of intercourse across the Pacific, published from 1924 onward. There is further racial evidence: a recent Tunebo skull serves as the occasion for Professor Verneau (1924) to demon- strate that some aboriginal Colombians show an Oceanic Negroid strain. Lebzelter (1925) and Gusinde (see Stewart, 1943 a), both alone and together, in a series of monographs toy with the idea of Australoid physical traits among the Fuegians but never fully commit themselves. The edifice continues to grow: on the physical side new additions are made by Eickstedt (1934), Imbelloni (1937 b), Count (1939, 1941); on the cultural side, by a host of authors who ignore the reasoned judgments of Boas (1925, 1929), Nordenskidéld (1931), and Dixon (1933). Here our concern is with the biological evidence; when the imposing fagade is stripped away we find the framework to be the veriest piece of jerry-building. The initial demonstration of the “race” of Lagoa Santa is based upon material that a properly trained modern anthropologist cannot but regard as utterly inadequate. The fewer than 50 crania that served as the cornerstone for the present construct would scarcely represent an adequate sample, even if we were to suppose it was derived from a single population with known cultural characteristics and from a specific timepoint in human history.
The calvarium from Punin (Sullivan and Hellman, 1925), assigned to the Pleistocene of Ecuador, exhibits a complex of morphologically primitive anatomical features (pl. 1) that have led the authors who described it not only to note its resemblance to the Lagoa Santa crania but to raise seriously the possibility of its Australoid-Melane- soid racial affinities. They further suggest that the main problem depends upon which view one accepts with regard to the unity or possible plurality of origin of the American Indian. The evident sterility of results in using this approach seems clearly to show that it is tackling from the wrong end the matter of achieving a solution to the question of Indian racial origins. With a single specimen of exceptional physical conformation it is patently essential to find out
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first what its relations are to the norms, the limits of variation, and the internal variability of well-studied series of native American crania whose temporal and cultural associations are likewise of record. If the divergence metrically and morphologically is great, then is the time to seek extra-American relationships. The all too usual procedure has been to look first for relationships abroad. If all of the “‘fossil”’ men had been as competently, impartially, and speedily investigated as was the “Cuzco Man” (see Hrdliéka, 1918) several hundred speci- mens would now have no more than a mild antiquarian interest.
The preceding paragraphs have gradually drawn further and further away from the question with regard to the antiquity of man in South America. This is inevitable because the related but not iden- tical problems of the earliest traces of human beings in the New World, and their racial, cultural, and linguistic origins have been interwoven from the very beginning of both popular and scientific interest in the Indians. No rigid separation of the two is either needful or fruitful, but it is essential to bear in mind that the solution of the problems of the time and the manner of arrival of man must be ante- cedent to any valid study of origins, be they racial or cultural. Chron- ological relationships based upon the criteria of form and function, whether applied to skulls or pots, shinbones or bronze pins, are notoriously subject to a margin of error that varies with the training and with the temperament of the individual investigator. Given quantitatively adequate assemblages of archeological or skeletal ma- terial whose time relationships to other series are known, the arche- ologist or physical anthropologist may then have some expectation of ultimately obtaining valid conclusions concerning origins and ances- tral connections. The analysis of material whose principal point of reference is that it occupied or was associated with a given point in space but whose point on a time scale is unknown is a legitimate subject for investigation but it falls outside the field of history and the antiquity of man in South America, and the origins of the native peoples of that continent are clearly historical problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aichel, 1914, 1925, 1929; Ambrosetti, 1913; Ameghino, 1913-36, 1923; Anonymous, 1927 a; Anthony and Rivet, 1908; Aparicio, 1932; Benigar, 1928; Bird, J., 1938 a, 1938 b; Bird, J., and Bird, M., 1937; Bird, M. (see Bird and Bird, 1937); Bluntschli, 1931; Boas, 1925, 1929; Bonarelli, 1918 a, 1918 b; Bordas, 1942; Boule, 1923 a, 1923 b; Branca, 1938; Bryan, 1945; Cabrera, 1936; Camp and Vanderhoof, 1940; Camp, Taylor, and Welles, 1942; Capdeville, 1921; Casanoves, 1909; Castellanos, 1917, 1922, 1924, 1926 a, 1926 b, 1926, 1926 d, 1928 a, 1928 b, 1930, 1933, 1936, 1938, 1943; Colbert, 1942; Count, 1939, 1941; Cuervo M4rquez, 1920, 1927; Diniz Gonsalves, 1928; Dixon, 1933; Eickstedt, 1934; Fenner (see Hrdlitka, Holmes, et al., 1912); Frenguelli, 1919, 1920, 1928, 1932; Friant, 1933; Gapanovich, 1931;
Vol. 6] ANTIQUITY OF MAN—McCOWN 9
Garcia Payon, 1934; Goldbaum (see Branca, 1938) ; Gusinde (see Stewart, 1943 a); Hellman (see Sullivan and Hellman, 1925); Holmes (see Hrdliéka, Holmes, et al., 1912) ; Hooton, 1937; Hrdliéka, 1907, 1913, 1918, 1935 b; Hrdli¢éka, Holmes, Willis, Wright, and Fenner, 1912; Ihering, H. v., 1914; Imbelloni, 1923 a, 1923 b, 1924, 1937 a, 1937 b; Kate, 1924; Keith, 1925, 1931; Lacerda and Peixoto, 1876; Latcham, 1915 a, 1915 b, 1928; Lauria, 1922; Leakey, 1926; Lebzelter, 1925; Lund (see Mat- tos, 1935); Martinez del Rio, 1936; Mattos, 1935; Mendes-Corréa, 1928, 1941-46; Meyer, 1930; Milice, 1922; Montandon, 1929 a, 1929 b; Moura, 1928; Nelson, 1936; Nilsson, 1932; Nordenskiédld, 1931; Oetteking, 1932; Osborn, 1936; Oyarztn, 1916 a, 1916 b, 1917, 1927 a; Palavecino, 1921; Peixoto (see Lacerda and Peixoto, 1876) ; Pericot y Garcia, 1936; Péch, 1938; Rivet, 1908, 1909, 1937, 1943 b (also see Anthony and Rivet, 1908); Rusconi, 1928, 1932, 1935 a, 1935 b, 1937-88; Sarasin, 1928; Schneider, 1926, 1936; Sellards, 1940, 1947; Serrano, 1930, 1931, 1938; Simp- son, 1940 b; Spillman, 1928, 1936; Steinman, 1924; Stewart, 1943 a, 1943b; Stolyhwo, 1934 b; Sullivan and Hellman, 1925; Tapia, A., 1937; Taylor (see Camp, Taylor, and Welles, 1942); Torres, L. M., 1913; Trombetti, 1928; Uhle, 1916, 1922, 1930; Urquiza, 1912; Vallois, 1938; Vanderhoof (see Camp and Vander- hoof, 1940); Verneau, 1924, 1927; Vignati, 1920, 1923 a, 1923 b, 1923 c, 1924 b (1925), 1928 a, 1931 a, 1931 b, 1932, 1934, 1941; Vignaud, 1913; Walter et al, 1937; Wayland, 1934; Welles (see Camp, Taylor, and Welles, 1942); Willis (see Hrdli¢éka, Holmes, et al.,41912); Wolff (see Imbelloni, 1923 b); Wright (see Hrdli¢ka, Holmes, et al., 1912).
See also the following: Imbelloni, 1939 c; Liitkin, 1884, 1888; Nehring, 1895 a, 1895 b; Quenstedt and Quenstedt, 1936; Rusconi, 1938; Sullivan and Hellman, 1938; Ten Kate, 1885; Vignati, 1925.e,1928b. —
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THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE THEORIES CONCERNING PRIMITIVE MAN IN ARGENTINA
By Joaquin FRENGUELLI
The problem of “fossil man’ in Argentina was stated a century ago when A. d’Orbigny (1835-47, vol. 3) maintained that at least part of the mud layers on the pampas dated from the same period as the de- posits in the caves of Brazil where Lund and Clauser had found human skeletons mingled with the remains of Platyonyx, Hoplophorus, Megatherium and Smilodon.
The question was raised in a more direct manner, years later, when F. Seguin (1863) found, in excavations near the abutments of a bridge over the river Carcarafi4, human remains associated with the Arcto- theritwm bones and other typical forms of extinct animal life of the pampas.
In both cases, there was doubt as to the authenticity of the rela- tionship. In support of Seguin’s discoveries, for the first time H. Burmeister (1866) maintained that it was a case of accidental commingling of more recent vestiges of indigenous life with the re- mains of diluvian mammals. ‘This gave rise to an endless controversy which still continues without producing any definite results, much less a reasonable harmony of opinions.
The central and most prominent figure in this long dispute was, without any doubt, F. Ameghino. This famous paleontologist made his first discoveries in 1870; from then on he continued to repeat them in various places and at different times almost to the very end of his arduous life in 1911. The Ameghinian theory is well known in every detail. Preceded by Patagonian ancestors of the lower (Pitheculites), middle (Homunculus), and upper (Anthropops) Eocene period, the first Hominidae had appeared in the southern region of the pampas during the Miocene (Hermosense) with Tetraprothomo argentinus (atlas of Monte Hermoso), the first link in an evolutionary chain which doubtless continued in the upper Miocene with Tripothomo (hypothetical), in the lower Pliocene (pre-Ensenadense) with Dipro- thomo platensis (skull from the harbor of Buenos Aires), and in the middle and upper Pliocene (Ensensadense-Lujanense) with the series Prothomo and Homo pampaeus (crania from Miramar and Necochea, Baradero and Fontezuela, Arrecifes and Ovejero, etc.), now endowed
11
12 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
with well-developed psychic and morphological human characteris- tics. Finally, at the dawn of the Quaternary era (post-Lujanense hiatus), Homo sapiens probably reached his full development in the vicinity of Buenos Aires and from there spread through the rest of America and the world.
Today no one shares the Ameghinian theory in its entirety. It is no longer believed that the Patagonian Homunculideo of the Tertiary era represent the direct ancestors of the pampan Hominidae. The evolutionary chain of earlier plain dwellers has been broken in as much as both partisans and opponents recognize that human remains unearthed from the strata of the pampas belong in their entirety to the genus Homo. Finally, no one now admits that the soft clay on the pampas belongs completely to the Tertiary era. Nevertheless, Ameghino’s theory cannot be forgotten, not only because of its his- toric value as an achievement which in Argentina and elsewhere greatly stimulated scientific investigation and so stirred the opinions of his time, but also because of the influence it exercised on the later unfolding of the problem.
In truth, up to the present, the question of primitive man in Ar- gentina has always stemmed from the Ameghinian idea, only to de- velop in two opposite directions and to arrive at antagonistic conclu- sions. On the one hand, it is admitted that the American aborigine could have been native and that his ancestors, while not so far remote as Ameghino claimed, evolved during the pampas age, totally or partially Quaternary, along with the mammals which were so char- acteristic of the same geological period. On the other hand, it is argued that the Argentine aborigines, like their kin throughout America, are more or less recent immigrants and that, consequently, the anthropological remains dug from the pampas belong to these immigrants who were accidentally (through removal or burial) in- terred with the remains of Typotherium, Torodon, Mastodon, Mega- thervum, Megaloniz, Glyptodon, etc.
Within this second trend of ideas the opposite extreme was reached by reducing all the American peoples to one race and searching for the origin of their stock among the Egyptians, Sumerians, Chaldeans, Phoenicians, Trojans, Basques, Tartars, Chinese, etc. According to A. Hrdlitka, for example, his ‘‘American homotype’’ was probably derived from Mongoloids who, moving from the extreme east of Asia, reached the far west of America through Bering Strait and from there no doubt scattered as far as Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Elliot Smith, however, held that a “‘heliolithic civilization’ leaving Egypt crossed Asia and the Pacific, and then, moving from island to island, reached America and, in its spread toward the south, was deterred only by the inhospitable barrier of the Antarctic ice sheets.
Vol. 6) PRIMITIVE MAN—FRENGUELLI 13
Along the same trend of thought but on a more logical basis, other authors maintained that the peopling of America could bave been accomplished only by successive waves of anthropologically and ethnographically diverse elements, in different periods of time and from many different regions. Among those who upheld this idea we may name Griffith Taylor, R. B. Dixon, Von Eickstedt, E. W. Count, and others. However, in order to keep within hypotheses which have more direct bearing on the problem in Argentina, it is more appropriate to mention P. Rivet and J. Imbelloni.
The theory of P. Rivet (1924 e, 1926 a, 1926 b) derives from an old idea of G. d’Eichthal concerning the predominance of the ‘Oceanic races”’ in the peopling of America, and of the ties between ‘‘Oceanics”’ and Americans, which have been verified by well-known ethnographers and corroborated by his own investigations in the fields of anthropol- ogy, ethnography (archeology), and linguistics. On this basis he claims that the peopling of America was effected through Pacific water routes, in different eras and by countless waves of ethnically different elements, whose origin must be sought in the extreme southeast of Asia and in the Indo-Malayan Archipelago. Furthermore, he declares that the first arrivals of these elements on the coasts of America occurred in an epoch no earlier than the end of the Quaternary, i. e., when the continent’s present contours had already become fixed.
With this theory Rivet denies the authenticity of the discoveries attributed to paleolithic man in America in general and in Argentina in particular; further, he does not accept any route from hypothetical Atlantic and Pacific continents of pre-Quaternary times. Again the complete ignorance throughout all of pre-Columbian America of the use of iron and writing, as well as of no less fundamental elements, such as the wheel, glass, wheat, etc., enable him to deny flatly any theory which, for the populating of America, resorts to ancient inhab- itants of the Mediterranean area and to direct influences from civilized peoples of eastern Asia.
According to Rivet, the principal groups which contributed succes- sively to forming the primitive population of America were, in the order of their arrival, the following: An Australian element; an element of Malayo-Polynesian speech resembling in physical characteristics the Melanesian group; an Asiatic element in which can be distinguished a Uralian (Eskimo) admixture; and a Sino-Tibetan (Na-Dene) element. Rivet does not fix the dates of the successive arrivals; but, on the suggestion of A. Mendes-Corréa, supposes that the first inhabitants, the Australians, landed in the extreme south of South America and wandered along the borders of the Antarctic during the recession of the ice sheets, at the time of the postglacial optimum approximately 6,000 years ago.
14 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 148
Along similar ideas, Imbelloni’s theory also considers the peopling of America as the result of countless migratory waves in different epochs from the Pacific and near-Pacific regions. He disagrees, how- ever, on essential points. Like Rivet, he denies both the ‘American homotype” of Hrdliéka’s pan-Mongoloidism and Ameghino’s mono- genism; but he explains the great number of American races by new arguments, including serology, and he admits, although vaguely, that America, like the rest of the habitable world, might have shel- tered human life from the time of the Pleistocene age. He contem- plates a primitive Australoid prototype, but conceives it as evolving from an archaic human creature which dominated the Asia-Pacific world and which spread through America from north to south, to the very limits of Tierra del Fuego. He accepts a Malayo-Polynesian contingent, but separated into numerous elements of very dissimilar type. And he adds another migratory element: the Indonesian, source of the Mayan civilization (and its derivatives).
Imbelloni’s theory is that with the passing of time these different groups appeared in succession with the following physical character- istics: Short dolicoids, Tasmanian in appearance and culture, from whom evolved the Fuéguido and Ldguido; tall dolicoids, Australoids, nomadic hunters from whom the Plénido and Pdmpido developed; ultra-dolichocephalics of short stature, Melanesoids, hunters and gatherers, together with less pronounced dolicoid elements of the proto-Indonesian type, weavers and agriculturists, from whom ori- ginated the Amazénido; brachycephalics of medium height, Mon- goloids, bringers of higher forms of agriculture and of patrilineal institutions, represented by the Pueblo-Andino; ultra-brachycephalics and brachycephalics artistically endowed and the creators of states, from whom stemmed the Jstmido and their metastases; finally, the last contingents, Colimbido and Eskimo.
Since 1919 the author of this paper has tried to establish certain concepts which he believes fundamental for the future solution of the problems dealing with primitive man in America, at least in Argentina. By studying the upper soils on the pampas and discover- ing human remains in various levels of the series which they composed and in different localities in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Cérdoba, and Santa Fé, he thought to have proved that here actually lived an ancient human race, from the beginning of the sedimentation of this series, together with the more representative mammals of its fauna. But in contrast with F. Ameghino and on the firm basis of geological, paleontological, and climatological arguments, he tried to show that the different levels of the loess series in Argentina (Pampeano) belong as a whole to the Quaternary era; i. e., the Chapalmalense, the En- senadense, the Bonaerence, and the Lujanense to the Pleistocene age,
Vol. 6] PRIMITIVE MAN—FRENGUELLI 15
and the Platense, the Cordobense, and the Aimarense to the Holo- cene (fig. 1). He denied, however, the existence in Argentina of re- mains of Hominidae in the Tertiary era. He declared, on the other hand, that the fauna contemporary with primitive man of the pam- pas is, in spite of its archaic appearance, relatively recent, and that its last vestiges became extinct during the course of our era. He proved, in truth, that since the Chapalmalense period, at the base of the stratigraphical series, this native fauna, formed by remains of Tertiary mammals, was mingled with numerous representatives of an immigrant fauna which is certainly of the Quaternary era.
In his opinion, up to the present there are very few human skeletal remains which belong to the lower and middle Pampian period: they are restricted to the two molars of the Chapalmalense, which Vignati (1941) has recently described at length. They appear somewhat more frequently at the end of the Pleistocene (Lujanense), showing those Australoid characteristics recognized in the so-called ‘‘Lagoa Santa Race.”” They become more numerous in the Holocene (Platense- Cordobense) with the brachycephalics of the “race of llama-raisers.’’ Finally, they occur in great numbers in the Aimarense period, at the threshold of our time, with the modern polymorphs.
By contrast, industrial remains appear with relative frequency from the base of the series (Chapalmalense period) and continue in almost uninterrupted succession to the present, especially in some levels (Ensenadense, Lujanense, and Aimarense) of the Atlantic coast. Judging by technolithic methods, the different industries do not indi- cate successive links in an unbroken chain, but rather expressions of independent cultures. In all of them, however, Mousterian types are dominant, from the crudest to the most highly developed forms, which perhaps indicate a single source of successive migratory waves. But at the same time, evident admixtures of ethnically different elements probably resulted, especially during the Ensenadense period, in which there appear articles of bone, and during the Aimarense period (the uppermost of the series), wherein for the first time appear microliths, bifacial implements, crude pottery, and, subsequently, a limited use of copper.
The beginning of this last phase would seem to mark the start of new ages and of recent migratory currents, which may well be those which Imbelloni considered, at least, the departure of his Melanesian and proto-Indonesian contingents. In any event, it would seem certain that there was a Paleolithic age in the pampas region of Argentina, whose first forms appeared in the Chapalmalense period, i. e., in an epoch probably contemporary with the Sanmeniense period and the site where the Sinanthropus was found in Asia. Otherwise, it would seem strange that so vast and favorable a continent as America
16 SOUTH. AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
Provan Corsbbonge oo STEPPER &27-Aampecn a Hlatense «s+. [ T Querandinense ++++++++ a eae Pluvial +++ re aoe LU/ONENSE +++ 00 eeeee li later-Plovial:+++-Bonaerense +++ Dek = Meso-Pampean Plovial +++ Ensenadense +++. Se Gekat Interensen \SFZSFz Lower. hater ~PrAgAl wees dais cea Upper -- Chapalmalense os Biche yohatcinae ser LORE
Plovial ++++++ Lopampean HerMOSseNs€ +++++++ . = Upper Upper Pliocene ---+++++ Puelchense -
Figure 1.—Diagram of geological column of the Argentine Pampa. (Redrawn from Frenguelli, 1939, fig. 2.)
Vol. 6] PRIMITIVE MAN—FRENGUELLI 17
had remained closed to the Paleolithic Ecumene while an enormous interchange of mammals was going on between America and Asia and vice versa.
Vignati shares these beliefs, disagreeing only in details of minor importance; other authors, however, continue to believe that part of the deposits on the pampas still belong to the Pliocene period and that, therefore, Argentina was the cradle of humanity during the Tertiary era.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ameghino, 1880-81, 1909, 1910; Burmeister, H., 1866, 1876; Count, E. W., 1941; Eickstedt, 1934; Frenguelli, 1921, 1927, 1934; Gervais, 1867, 1876; Hrdliéka, 1912 a, 1917, 1925; Imbelloni, 1937 b, 1938 a, 1938 b; Mendes-Corréa, 1928, 1941-46; Orbigny, 1835-47; Rivet, 1924 e, 1926 c, 1926 d; Sequin, 1963; Smith, G. Elliot, 1916, 1916-17; Vignati, 1921, 1936, 1941.
Puate 3.—Bolas and human teeth from Argentina. a, b, Bolas of the recent Indians, Miramar, Buenos Aires. c, Bolas of quartzite of the Chapalmalense, Miramar, Buenos Aires. d, e, Bolas of hard, calcareous material and of animal bone, respectively, of the Ensenadense, Miramar, Buenos Aires. t, 9, Lateralis and verticalis views of a human mandible fragment (note dental caries) of the Lujanense, Arroyo Cululd, north of Esperanza, Santa Fé. (Courtesy Joaquin Frenguelli.)
PiatEe 4.—Stone and bone points from Miramar, Buenos Aires. a, b, Anterior and posterior views of triangular and ovate quartzite points of the Chapalma- lense. c, Anterior and posterior view of a porphyritic point found in a cal- careous concretion of the Chapalmalense. The dissolution of the concretion has given the specimen a calcareous patina. d, Point made of a mammal bone, from the Ensenadense. e, Lance point made of mastodon (Stegomastodon) tusk, from the Ensenadense. f, Lance point made of glyptodont (Sclerocalyp- tus) rib. (Courtesy Joaquin Frenguelli.)
PART 2. PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY SKELETAL REMAINS OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
ANTHROPOMETRY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN SKELETAL REMAINS
By T. D. Stewart and MarsHatt T. NewMan
Any review of the measurements of Indian skeletal remains from South America should recognize the errors inherent in these measure- ments. The only data on some series go back to the beginnings of the present-day techniques; to Virchow and Broca, the founders of rival schools. Other series have been described by followers of one or the other of these schools, who, however industrious and conscien- tious, had no direct training in technique. In addition, some of the reports fail entirely to indicate how the measurements were taken or give only average indices.
As would be expected also where a multitude of observers have worked more or less independently, their individual biases in sexing the specimens and in the identification of artificial deformity have introduced irregularities into the data. Pervading all of the records, therefore, is a certain unreliability, which no amount of statistical analysis can evaluate or overcome. Unfortunately, South America, unlike North America, has not had an Hrdlitka to sample the remains from the different regions and make reliable comparisons both within the continent and throughout the hemisphere. This is one of the ereatest needs in this field.
Because of these deficiencies in the records and because so many areas are not represented at all, owing to the practice of cranial deformity or poor preservation of the remains, only the broader dis- tributions of the main physical traits will be shown here. Skeletal parts other than the skull have received relatively little attention, so this review will be restricted to the skull! The cranial series that have been found suitable for this purpose are listed with their sources in table 1 and are located by serial number on map 1.
Maximum length ef skull.—This measure usually is taken from
1 The main references to the skeleton are listed at the end of this article.
19 794711—_50——3
20 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. P. Bull. 143
Map 1.—Base map of South America showing locations of cranial series listed in table 1.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN |
glabella anteriorly to the posterior-most part of the occiput, wherever this may occur, or in the midline. Occasionally, ophryon is used as the anterior landmark. (Cf. Flower, W. H., 1907.) Although there are slight variations resulting from these different techniques, in general the records of this measure are fairly comparable. Aside from technique, however, length of the skull is affected (most often decreased) by artificial deformities.
The selected records are given in table 2 by descending order of size in the males. It will be observed that the first 6 series—the longest heads in the absolute sense—are from Argentina or the islands to the south belonging to Argentina and Chile (Tierra del Fuego). Indeed, of the first 12 series all but one are from the East and Southeast. On the other hand, the last 10 series—the shortest heads—are all from the West and Northwest. This distribution can mean a difference either in the shape of the head (dolichocrany or brachycrany) or in the gen- eral size of the head in these 2 areas. It will be seen from the other measurements and from the indices below that these regional differ- ences are due chiefly to size.
Maximum breadth of the skull.—The accuracy of this measure depends upon obtaining the maximum wherever it occurs above the temporal ridges. The qualification is not always observed. As in the case of the length, the breadth is affected (usually increased) by arti- ficial deformities.
The selected records, arranged as usual in the descending order of size in the males, are presented in table 3. Again the Argentine and Tierra del Fuego series predominate among the first series—the abso- lutely broadest heads (all but 3 of the first 12). And of the last 10 series—the narrowest heads—all but 3 are from the West. The 3 exceptions in the latter distribution are all from Brazil, and these, ac- cording to table 2, are also long-headed. Here, then, the narrowness is due to shape and not size.
Skull height from basion.—The records are not always clear as to how this measure was taken. In the majority of cases, it is clearly stated to be basion-bregma; but in those in which the methods of the German school have been followed, it is often either vertical height or maximum height. The differences are not very great in any of these methods.
According to the records presented in table 4, the highest heads are largely in the East and Southeast (9 of the first 11 series), whereas the lowest heads are in the West and Northwest (all but 1 of the last 14 series). This distribution is the same as for length and breadth and likewise may be due to shape or size. Because all 3 diameters are large in the East and Southeast and small in the West and North- west, it is obvious that there is a corresponding distinction in general
22 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 148
size of the skull in these 2 areas (see cranial module). It will be shown below, however, in connection with the mean height index that the distinction regarding height also holds relative to length and breadth; or in other words, relative to shape.
Cranial index.—The reliability of an index depends upon that of each of the measures entering into the ratio—in this case length and breadth. Cranial indices in the upper 80’s and above usually indicate deformity.
Table 5 contains several records (series 29-38) in addition to those given in the preceding three tables. However, it is apparent that there is not the same clear geographical segregation of horizontal head shape as of head size. For instance, the six records for Peruvian males extend from 75.5 to 80.3; the eight for Argentina proper from 73.7 to 81.0—almost the full range for the continent. The most dolicho- cranic (71.4) group—also perhaps the most ancient—is that from Lagoa Santa, Brazil (No. 24). The series from Paltacalo, Ecuador (No. 8), selected by Rivet for its resemblance to Lagoa Santa, has an identical average index, but this rises to 75.0 (range 67.4-82.6) for the total combined undeformed males and females. The fact that the lowest indices tend to occur in the East, where the practice of de- formity is very little developed, suggests that there may be an inclu- sion of slightly deformed skulls in the so-called undeformed series from the regions where this practice is or has been present.
Mean height index.—The two standard indices of skull height— length-height and breadth-height—tend to vary with the cranial index and, unless considered carefully together, do not give a full expression of relative height. (Cf. Stewart, 1942a.) To overcome this objection the mean height index of Hrdlitka, which relates height to the mean of the length and breadth, will be used here. This index has the addi- tional advantage of saving printing space, since it substitutes one figure for two.
As already pointed out in connection with absolute height, relative height shows a clear regional variation (table 6). The lowest heads, relatively speaking, are localized for the most part in the North— in eastern Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil, with a small extension into eastern Pert. All the rest of the continent, except the southernmost tip, is occupied by high-heads. This distri- bution, which is shown on map 2, has been discussed elsewhere (Stewart, 1943 d).
Cranial module.—The mean of the three main cranial diameters gives a convenient measure of cranial size. The detailed data will not be given here because they can be calculated from tables 2, 3, and 4. In general the average module ranges from 148.8 to 158.6 mm. in males and from 140.5 to 150.8 mm. in females. Using 152 in the males as an arbitrary dividing point between large and small skulls, which
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 2a
90 15 60 45
AVERAGE MEAN HEIGHT /NDEX
—-) OVER G3
Z Niet
90 75 60 45 36
Map 2.—Generalized distribution of the extremes of the mean height index in South America. This is based upon the data in table 6 (sexes combined).
24 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
corresponds to about 145 in the females, the distribution shown on map 3 results. Here the distinct segregation by size already indicated by the individual measurements is clearly demonstrated.
Capacity.—As usually taken, cranial capacity is subject to a con- siderable personal error from technique. Although some of this error tends to cancel out in large series, there is often an accumulating bias that results in an average that is higher or lower than the true value. Differences in sexing also influence the results, but deformity seems to have no effect. These factors are illustrated by the Zavaleta collection from the Calchaqui region of Northwestern Argentina (table 7, series Nos. 39 and 39a), the two equal parts of which have been described independently by Kunike (1911) and Constanzé (1942 a). According to their respective sexing and methods of taking capacity, Constanzé averages 50 cc. higher in the males and 90 cc. higher in the females than does Kunike.
The records in table 7, faulty though they may be, reflect the dis- tribution of head size already pointed out. Thus, of the first 15 records, 11 are from the East and Southeast, whereas of the remaining 11, 9 are from the West and Northwest. This distribution of capacity probably could be anticipated from that of head height, which has a high correlation with capacity.
Upper face height.—The distance between nasion and prosthion or alveolar point is not recorded in many of the earlier records. The chief error that enters into this measure involves the location of the alveolar point and the estimate of damage thereto from tooth loss.
Of the available records presented in table 8 again the highest figures are from the East and Southeast (all but one of the first nine) and the lowest figures are from the West and Northwest (all of the remaining nine).
Maximum face breadth.—There should be little error in obtaining the bizygomatic diameter, unless it is in locating the maximum.
The records given in table 9 repeat the finding of size distribution: the highest figures are from the East and Southeast (all but 1 of the first 12); the lowest figures are from the West and Northwest (all but 1 of the remaining 18).
Upper facial index.—The total variation for the averages of this index is only about 5 or 6 units, as compared to about 10 for the cranial index and the mean height index. Nearly this whole range is found within any one area. Thus, of the records listed in table 10, those from Argentina range in the males from 51.0 to 54.2; those from Pert from 49.8 to 53.1. This indicates that, although both the meas- ures entering into this index are larger in the Argentine series than in those from Pert, each pair of measures varies in about the same ratio. The geographic segregation so evident for these measures is only
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 25
ib I: AVERAGE CRANIAL MODULE
ie (T] 48ove 152
F BELOW 152
Map 3.—Generalized distribution of the extremes of the cranial module in South America. This is based upon the data in tables 2 to 4 (males only).
26 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 148
slightly evident in the records of the index, but appears to be in the same direction.
Orbital height——The diameter of an opening can be measured usually with a minimum of error. This is true in the case of the orbital height, except that the borders of the orbit are not always sharply defined and practices vary as to whether the height is taken vertically or at right angles to the long axis.
It will be seen from table 11 that the range of the reliable means is not very great—about 3 mm. in the males. This small range allows greater prominence to errors of sampling and technique and hence may obscure somewhat the geographic distribution of size. It is perhaps significant, however, that all but one of the figures for Argen- tina and Tierra del Fuego range from 35.1 to 36.4 in the males, whereas all but one from Pert range from 33.5 to 34.9.
Orbital breadth.—There are three landmarks on the medial side of the orbit—lacrymale, dacryon, and maxillofrontale, any one of which may be used in measuring breadth. Lacrymale gives the smallest measure and maxillofrontale the largest. Dacryon, slightly more medially placed than lacrymale, is probably most commonly used, although the records are seldom specific on this point.
Table 12, which has been restricted so far as could be determined to records of orbital breadth measured from dacryon, shows much the same narrow range of means as table 11. Here again differences in technique and in adequacy of samples possibly obscure the true geographic distribution of size. Comparing the same groups singled out under orbital height, it will be seen that all but three of the series from Argentina and Tierra del Fuego range from 39.0 to 41.5 mm. in the males, and that all but one from Perti range from 36.8 to 39.5 mm. There is thus some indication of a geographic segregation of orbit size similar to that characterizing the larger skull diameters.
Orbital index.—It is difficult to determine how much of the 16-unit range for the males in table 13 may be due to the variations in tech- nique pointed out in connection with orbital height and breadth or to inadequate sampling. The first three records, being excessively high, may be due to one or other of these factors; and perhaps the same is true of the last record, which is unusually low. Omitting these four records, the total range is cut in half, or to 8 units. Within this range very little if any geographic segregation is evident. Thus the reliable male records for Argentina and Tierra del Fuego run from 87.5 to 91.9 and those from Pert run from 86.0 to 91.7.
Nasal height.—The reliability of this measure suffers from the fact that one of the landmarks, the inferior limit of the nasal aperture, is not clearly defined. A variation results depending upon whether the
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN Tae
measurement is taken to the floor of the nasal cavity, to the spine, or—in case a gutter is present—to one of the borders.
The records given in table 14 show a geographic segregation which is too distinct to be the result of technical differences and which is in line with the distributions shown by other measurements. Of the first 15 records—the longest noses in the absolute sense—all but 4 are from the East and Southeast, whereas of the remaining 16—the shortest noses—all but 2 are from the West and Northwest.
Nasal breadth.—Since this measure is the diameter of an opening the edges of which are sharp, it is usually obtained with a minimum of error.
The total range of the means of the larger series shown in table 15 is very small, probably not over 3-4 mm. Nevertheless, some geo- graphic segregation is discernible. Thus, of the first 15 records—the broadest noses in the absolute sense—8 are from the East and South- east, whereas, of the remaining 16—the narrowest noses—11 are from the West and Northwest.
Nasal index.—Table 16 shows that, although both of the absolute measurements of the nose tend to be largest in the East and Southeast and smallest in the West and Northwest, their ratios tend to be the opposite; i. e., relatively narrow noses are more common in the East and Southeast and relatively broad noses in the West and Northwest. Obviously this is due to the fact that the length differs more than the breadth in these two areas. As examples of the geographic segrega- tion of the nasal index, all of the male records from Argentina and Tierra del Fuego based on adequate numbers, with one exception (No. 39), range from 46.1 to 47.4, whereas those from Pert range from 47.5 to 50.1. The exceptional group from Argentina appears to be similar to the Peruvians in both the absolute and relative dimen- sions of the nose. (Cf. also tables 14 and 15.) This might be ex- pected from the intermediate geographic location of this group (map 1). The generalized distribution of the nasal index thus appears to be much like that for head size shown on map 3.
Summary.—The clearest fact that emerges from this review of skull measurements is the clear geographic segregation of head size: the largest heads in the East and Southeast and the smallest heads in the West and Northwest. The ratios between pairs of measurements do not show this regional difference so clearly, except the mean height index and the nasal index. However, the significance of these two indicial distributions may not be the same in both cases. In South America the mean height index ranges from about 75 to 89, and the nasal index from about 46 to 52. The different values of these two indices reflect the disproportions of the measures from which they are derived; in other words, nasal length is about twice the size of nasal
28 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
breadth, whereas cranial height is much more nearly equal to the mean of cranial length and breadth. When two such measures are quite disproportionate, as in the case of the nose, their ratio changes more markedly with increase in general skull size. This fact probably accounts largely for the geographic changes in the nasal index parallel- ing those of the nasal diameters.
The peculiar geographic localization of low-headedness in the north- ern part of South America as determined by the mean height index thus may be significant of something more than a change in general head size, since the component measurements are more nearly of equal value. In this connection it is interesting that there seems to be a more or less continuous distribution of low-headedness from Siberia through western North America and Central America into northern South America (Stewart, 1943 d).
Each of the tables given here (tables 2-16) includes standard devia- tions (sigmas) of series of 25 or more specimens. For each measure- ment or index there thus results a mean sigma based upon a fair number of series. In general, as discussed elsewhere (Stewart, 1943 e), these mean sigmas indicate about the same amount of variability as in North American series, and somewhat less than that of European series.
TaBLe 1.—List of undeformed cranial series used in the present study and their
sources aa Locality or tribe Author
eee Cerro de Luna, Venezuela_- Marcano, 1893 b.
A ae Ipi-Iboto, Venezuela________ Marcano, 1893 b.
Rao Curcurital, Venezuela_-_____ Marcano, 1893 b.
caf: ya i Piarovivenertela) eee ee ena Marcano, 1890 a.
Ae Valleys of Aragua and Caracas, | Marcano, 1893 a.
Venezuela.
Gees 28 Cuica and Timote (Venezuela) ___-_--_- Marcano, 1891.
Ges Goajiro (Colombia-Venezuela) _________ Marcano, 1890 b; Virchow, 1886 b.
(aoe Near Bogoté, Colombia__--___-______- Broca, 1876.
cee ee Paltacsiowbiciad one Rivet, 1908.
Que a Paran4, Delta, Argentina____________- Torres, L. M., 1911.
Kt eee Rio Neero; Arcentina. 2) 2s Marelli, 1913 a.
Teese Rio Chubut, Argentina_.___.___.____- Marelli, 1913 a.
7 Pea Late Araucanian (Argentina) ________- Marelli, 1913 a; Ten Kate, 1892.
ines Arauconian (Chile) 2 Latcham, 1904 b.
1 Lee ae Norquin, Argentina (Araucanian | Virchow, 1894.
oe Near Lakes Colhue and Musters, | Verneau and De Ja Vaulx, 1902.
Argentina.
16-25% Near Lake Buenos Aires, Argentina__| Imbelloni, 1923 a.
Wess: Ona (Tierra del Fuego) ____._________- Gusinde, 1939; Hrdlitka, in Dabbene, 1911.
15S Ses2 Yahgan (Tierra del Fuego) ________-___ Gusinde, 1939; Hrdlitka, in Dabbene, 1911; Hultkrantz, 1898; Ten Kate, 1904.
1 CL ees ape Alncaluf (Tierra del Fuego) __________- Gusinde, 1939; Hyades and Deniker, 1891; Mantegazza and Regalia, 1886; Mehnert, 1893; Ten Kate, 1904; Turner, 1884.
ea SaneDamisan Weer teense sane ee Newman, 1943.
2 @hancay, seerda ese. as oon eae Newman, 1943.
22 Sen Moche, and Virfi Valleys, | Stewart, 1943 a.
era.
yA ee Panearcancha, etc., Perfi_-=.--.=---=-=- MacCurdy, 1923.
VAT) Wuieve hls (debe lec k eae ee ee Se Eaton, 1916.
Jope= el) RepiomotCalca seers eee Quevedo A., 1941-42.
DA Lagoa Santa, brazil: 2.2222 es Bastos d’A vila, Handbook, this vol., p. 74; Hansen, 1888;
Poch, 1938; Walter, Cathoud, and Mattos, 1937.
Vol. 6]
SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN
29
TaBLE 1.—List of undeformed cranial series used inithe present study and their sources—Continued
Bees Locality or tribe 0.17) eee Botocudo (Brazil)___._-------- 23 eee Imbabura, Ecuador_-___------ (a Shell mounds, Brazil_-__----- Date Coquimbo Bay, Chile_______- 22 ae Arawak (Guianas) -_-.------- BOE ee: Machushi (Brazil)_----------- eee VAriye COTATI) ne see ne apie eee Motilén (Colombia-Venezuela) __--__--
Chiriguano (Bolivia) __---- Mataco (Argentina) -__ Guayaqui (Paraguay) --- Chono (Chile) Calchaqui Valley, A
TABLE 2.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series:
Coroado;(Brazil)-- 222-25 22-2- Siriono (Bolivia) _----..------
lley, At Argentina_ 39a_.._| Calchaquif Valley, Argentina
Author
Canestrini and Moschen, 1879; Ehrenreich, 1887; Frido-
lin, 1898; Hansen, 1888; Lacerda and Peixoto, 1876
Rey, 1880; Rodrigues Peixoto, 1885; Sergi, G.,
1891;
Schaaffhausen, 1877, 1879-80; Spengel, 1874; Virchow, 1874 b; Wieger, 1884! Zimmerman, 1935.
Jijon y Caamaiio, 1912. Lacerda, 1885; Virchow, 1872 a, 1874 a. Latcham, 1904 a. Broesike, 1880; Flower, W. H., 1907. Broesike, 1880: Flower, W.4H., 1907. Spengel, 1874. Ernst, 1887 c. Ecker, 1878; Hensel, 1870.
Outes, 1924.
Del Campana, 1902.
-| Lehmann-Nitsche, 1916 a; Otis, 1880. _--| Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1906 b. Flower, W. H., 1907; Hultkranz, 1898. Constanz6, 1942 a. Kunike, 1911 a.
Maximum
Female
Series Country No No spec iy ie Tierra del Fuego--_-_--- 26 i eee Tierra del Fuego---_---_- 12 i ae PAV O CNIS 57 i} PAT ODT hla aoe so ate 26 eee a PAC EN Gnas == 44 Ca Tierra del Fuego-__---- 39 > aa Braves Sven sess 2 Set 9 deeees) Veneztelas 22. 2525-52 14 N5S--= 2 PAT PON LNB san. se ne ee oe 9 GSS = PAT EC GINA ase ee ee 3 7 ee IBTAzIee anne Fee 31 ° (Brazilees sees aoe 10 21 Venezuela 5s ieee a 22 2 Weneziela s.8 20s sees © 4 a EI CUAC OR ee eee 11 ee Wenozwelae sso -sss-2 5 iP peaee UAC tes SO ee ee 27 ——— Venezuela_----.-..----- 14
RIGHT SION A ewesaas 2 ere eens
length } Male ~ | Mean-p. e. | Sigma
ne see (zal 5, 33 oe ou. 60__| 6.68 187.19-+0.53_-} 3.99 186.20-0.56__| 5.53 186.02-+0.59_-| 5. 50 180.222 28 oso |eee ee lista eee eee Iso os [eee USE YF feces eter [ae el 182.870.69__| 5.73 182/35 25— So ee es IS2iGE2 soe ae ee seo i bsp? Lae eo eee ee 1820 eS ao 258 |Sse ee it UP ee eee (See
180.670.72_- 79.
178.45-.0.80_- 178.18=-0.56_-
177.57+0.39__ 176.96+0.80_-
175.25+0.50_- Ye See ee 174,04+0.65_-| 4.91
183-202 182-198 176-201 180-195 176-196 173-196 178-196 168-193 172-192 180-187 170-195 170-200 174-196 179-186 175-186 175-188 171-189 170-186 165-190 176-182 171-189 176-181 166-190 162-189 167-188 168-193
3 Number of series, 14; number of specimens, 580. 3 Number of series, 10; number of specimens, 391.
>| Mean-p. e. | Sigma} Range [Rargee Se Ee a 166-202 TSO Yee |e 173-186 178.56+0.55__| 5.47 | 167-189 178.93+-0.65__| 5.25 | 167-188 Saleen eee eae 166-185 eS eR eae 163-187 WOO eae sone zee ee 172-192 174. BELO. 70_-| 5.28 | 165-185 040 | eee eS ee eee AV iy ee <4 ee eee 165-185 ty (Ai eee epemeee 162-172 172.84+0.58__| 4.30 | 163-181 SLO seen ee ees 172-185 NG TAQ Beatie x eee | Se eA 160-190 160-172 159-180
182. La Se | es Se es SS H 156-176 155-179 Als "39-40. 83_.| 6.82 | 155-187 169.6340.37__| 4.28 | 160-181 Df iy ee eet ee 159-180 16S: 05 easy eee 162-174 (ASS ees ae 170-179 168.02--0.43__| 4.85 | 159-178 163.69-+0.61__| 5.36 | 155-175 GY ge a es) ee eee 15. 58) |=ae eases
1 This and the following tables are arranged by the descending order of the means in the males.
30 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
TABLE 3.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Maximum
breadth Male Female Series Country No. No. * No * spec. Mean-+p. e. | Sigma| Range spec. Mean-+p. e. | Sigma} Range
Gees AT CON PING sae ae OAS o eee shes sae 144-151 |= =: | ces a2 eo2 3228) ee eee Ieee AT GOTIpINae ae tee seas 27 | 146.1140.56_--| 4.16 | 185-153 | 45 | 144.13+0.42_-| 4.18 | 1386-152 ie PANE ONTINA ees oe Ou) 14610 See eae a] 40-155 1) 144052. 22 |e eee [: Cane WVeneztiela-._=—22-2-2.<2 oe D&E |e ae ea 5) | P4Bt4. 2 222s eee 6 ibe 1) eee ATEEN LING 2-2 eae ee 25 | 143.28+-0.86__| 6.38 | 1382-159 30 | 139.48+-0.59__| 4.77 | 129-147 See asa Venezuelan. 5 62 14 P4322 eas eee 137-150 26 | 138.8540.62_-| 4.72 | 130-150 |r eee ATP enbIN a nea 7 0143 Obes eee S616 i Want ic fy fa ee PS 133-142 i Ly eae Tierra del Fuego 26 | 142.96-+40.55__| 4.16 | 132-157 10 127-145 Sees Tierra del Fuego__-_---- 39 | 142.80+0.51__| 4.69 | 135-156 | 20 125-141 Eee Argentinas =-2- 4-5 24-28) 45 | 142.7140.45__| 4.50 | 134-153 22) T3512 ec eee 124-145 Gre: Colombia-Venezuela_ -- So 1426 ae eee a 140-146 8. |, .186:2000 22 a ae ges = Tierra del Fuego___-___- O44) eee See ee 6-148) 42 |, 139:4- 2-22 as tas een Venezuela: 2 2-ee eee 50 | 141.36-40.46__| 4.81 | 1381-151 31 | 138.00+0.55_-| 4.57 | 127-147 IIS ESE ENC) oi) (ee ee oe Spee 25 | 141.28+0.60__| 4.45 | 183-150 6) 141-0). 2s | eee 138-143 Bae Wiene7ilela = eee Cle TCH ete Se | ee 138-143 6} .186:2. 25 =: |) ee eae 7 ja Wenezielal 2-2 Sees prea ules Ree | eee eee Soe Gal 25 | 138.36-40.58_-_| 4.32 | 129-151 DAC aed Let ip ee ee ers ee 26 | 139.85-40.80__| 6.06 | 126-150 19) W5i0L. 2s. cease See ieee Meneztielas2 2222s al WO BRE ee oe NS ee ee eR ety T1320: 2.2.22) ee ee PA\ eee IP OR ies er = eere 67 | 139.72+40.34._| 4.12 | 130-151 60 | 134.80-40.36__| 4.18 | 126-144 Dee (Perg2 ass 2s 2 ae eee 139.34+0.46__| 5.46 | 127-152 58 | 135.84+0.51__]| 5.76 | 122-148 11 Argentina 138.43-+0.47__| 5.08 | 1380-153 43 | 132.7740.41_-] 3.99 | 124-141 20eee Ecuador PSO es ose= = |Leeeees 134-140 2. | 136.52. 222-.-|-- ee GSI issn Colombia 1382025. 82S3| Pee 133-143 I} 138.052... e | eeee PAs Fr meee) (od 2c 16 ek ees ey pea ers Us y ec ee eee ES ae 35 | 134.94+-0.81__]| 7.07 | 124-153 74 ee TAZ Seen See 126.39-0.66__| 5.45 | 125-151 18: |. 132,222) Ss ees 124-143 PAE ae (Chiles Ge eA ae! Rye ee (ee Se ae aL 1 /128:0. 22 | eee 7 eee Pieris eee 135.45+0.38__| 4.60 | 126-144 36 | 130.42--0.49__] 4.37 | 119-139 PA ee Braves: ose LEO = sae. aS 2 6-146 4 : 132-134 Del WHOIS Sete ae ce ee ee 132.60-0.60__| 4.52 | 124-140 23 _| 116-133 AEA IV AUER A eae es Se Oe a 1323 2 ee e140 8 118-133 Sore Ecuador USO SS 2s oreo Ee ee eee 127-134 |-cac2||_Loo-2s--s eee eee INAS SS a 00 Ae rR oe Se ee eee ee BA BOs: We ene Altes, St ee ee 2.4.79) |: ees
1 Number of series, 14; member of specimens, 577. 2 Number of series, 10; number of specimens, 389.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN oL TaBLE 4.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Basion-bregma height
Male Female es Country S ke 0. : 0. -
spec. Mean-tp. e. | Sigma} Range spec. Mean-tp. e. | Sigma} Range One ==. yA oe ee ae 33 | 146.91+0.57_} 4.88 | 136-158 (el Da Bes ee Ae ee 128-145 iin Arcentinas 3 22 222 51 | 142.02-0.49_| 5.17 | 181-156 | 35 | 182.3140.57_| 5.02 | 121-145 ile eee AGReN tina seee se a Cal gi SUN ta RRS) ee 135-146 ibe | PSH TS Taj at0 a hak Sia dl Werth e al e g 24 (aoa BTA Zits se ty tle Ce ee eee 134-146 Osos eeeee weatle et 130-139 fiesee ls Arcentinas 22220) 22.3" PS as)! hy (aie eS [Ea 128-152 26 | 134.19--0.34_] 5.66 | 122-145 Te). Seal Tierra del Fuego-_-_-____- UDA tals 4. See Se oe (ees S 132-1464) S25) W305 9a se ee 125-136 74; WAI | p32 eet SS 32 | 139.16-0.66_| 5.57 | 126-148 U7 ¢ | [aa a XG SS Se ed 124-140 95a Chile ae Ce ae eet (ice 134-143 TUS] Fai Ua (4 NCES are Se (a ed | ee e62.--- LONGTEYG Koy ha ee eal (et ats) is Popes eee] See cam ae 130-145 Pal gtk Yih nls ips | oe 135-136 ip ATeentinaee == 2 nee oe 27 | 138.0440. 59_] 4.52 | 129-147 45 | 183. 47-40. 48 4.79 | 124-143 gees. 2 JAnpecray ates See eS ee G8 PE Oe Ee ee 126-144 a \ SOG eee 228 eee 127-135 Dameee LEXGIA Bas oe Ree aS ea Se 67 | 137. 07-40. 45 5.47 | 120-149 36 | 128.560. 58_] 5.14 | 117-142 oO) San Binary estes ee ee dl pl Sbso meet ms | boos 128-149 7 (| (tal sta oe el Ire SE 126-137 nee (Gl avt ey Se Se ANS Ee 25 | 186.24+0.58_} 4.34 | 129-145 6 133. 2k Se A eee 129-136 meer herd settee Nae ee 32 | 186.24+0.54_| 4.04 | 125-142 Pi | bil la (peepee lade Sg 124-137 i j-—aee Tierra del Fuego_______ 26 | 136.15-40.54_] 4.04 | 127-142 te liad aad Le ee See ed 127-143 Seon Tierra del Fuego_______ 38 | 135.952:0.49_] 4.45 | 124-143 | 18 | 181.0________|______- 122-139 7) Latha fle 6 See ae Oa 63 | 185.13+-0.39_} 4.63 | 123-146 56 | 128.77--0.39_| 4.35 | 118-142 anes 2! LVAD EY Ae ee LN PL SANG eee eS | ea S14 1s Fe eb ee oe (So ee ee | ee ee ee (2 Colombia== === PAM Gee St eee eS |S ee 132-136 gS 0 ae pe | es | Ee ee Lis oes Wenezuela 2-2 2 <1 i SB eee |e 128-138 Rt he O NO meee ate Seal ea oea ae 7Al eae Ve(ey a hae 5 Se es ee eee Ns 26 | 182.58+0.59_} 4.49 | 123-142 PAN ata ie SO RBIs 24 es Perit et se eee tee 66 | 132. 20-0.33_} 4.03 | 123-143 57 | 124.58+40.41_]} 4.56 | 113-132 i oe ATCONLINGA Ses = PH | (eile et eee ee | ee SD aS VM eee | [EER Ee ate) eee BL Le od pase ae Wenezuelas ss. 20-22-22 Cll lle 8 Le es a | Ee Se 125-138 GHG 522 ee a |e 122-130 eee Meneruela 22 8 1 | als Ls ee ee | 122-138 26 | 125.310. 66_} 4.99 | 114-133 nies 2 5 Wenezielas 2 e222 th aS) ey ee ES ee 122-140 CN (Ri Lao eR le 122-128 Gueee Ss” Colombia-Venezuela-__-| 8 | 128.5________]_______ 22 =O in| ae ee |e eee es | beeen ee sae PAT ale et a re ee bit {A O-7 ik eeee Sree (ES oe 8 117-144 35 | 123.00+0.56_| 4.87 | 110-137 ioe Weneziela-= = ae 48 ne 65-40. 46_| 4.72 | 118-138 30 | 122.43-40.58_| 4.71 | 114-134 7a Venezuela stn sass PRIMI Teen | eee Se TST || 0) | a ee ee 99-128 Jy (DEMOS Cg 10 Eg a poe ce i ee ese | | a ae DB. als: S| eee eel | Sm | 5 Se AEE ee 2:4). 00822 2 a
1 Number of series, 13; number of specimens, 534. 2 Number of series, 9; number of specimens, 346.
32 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. EB. Bull. 143
TABLE 5.—Cranial indices of South American series: Cranial index
Male Female Beries Country ie ee eC 0 . 0. : spec. Mean-tp.e.| Sigma} Range spec. Mean--p. e.| Sigma| Range
Shrenus BOMVIS ose ase Di 84 a ee ae ee | ee yes PArSen tin te see eee 27 | 81.00-40.48_} 3.72 | 72.6-88.3_} 45 | 84.48+0.40.] 4.00 | 73. 5-89.6 5 LSS AT Pen tina aaa nl fats) et! ees ets | eee 80:'0-82: 03|. 2 8 Lie (HSE, Colombia-Venezuela-_| 8 | 80.8__.---_.|_--__-- 78:3-84 10 |) So SISles > oa eee 77. 2-85. 2 Sieeees LEC 0 (See oe ee 26 | 80;325-0: 60 45°43 | °72)0-87.0:|| 19)| $8,122 eee eee yee Venezuela: 2222 222-2 14: SOR Zoe ie ee es 76. 2-87. 3_ Lp] (Rk Gah ee a [eee 85. 5-90. 5 17 Argentina=2 2222525 2= 7 PSO eres tee ee | ee 74. 3-87. 6_ 7h] SISO. Sos eae 76. 0-90. 4 Chi 25 | 79.7640. 40_} 2.94 | 74.0-86.0_] 6 | 82.0__.-____]__-____ 78. 8-86. 7
65 | 79.60-0.37_] 4.44 | 68.2-90.5_| 58 | 80. tae 38_| 4.32 OY 9-90. ie 50 | 79.37-0.30_| 3.19 | 72.2-86.5_}] 31 .
DP PQRO Le eS ee a ee ce Se ee 78. 870. 21_| 2.51 | 73.0-83.8_] 60
5 Ths [iy Cf Soe =e ere Pe ee 74. 3-86. 0_ 1 80. Ne ice Soe ee 73. 0-88. 6_| 33 | 82.52+-0.62_| 5.32 | 75.0-93.8 DR Heusdone sans ee Cll Niecy? Ce eee he Seek 75. 7-81. 2_ DE) Nal kay Aiea eee | fe esl 76. 5-80. 0 Gans Wienezielaa se sssee=== WA iA aoe hee oe 73. 8-82.1_| 26 | 79.99--0.47.] 3.55 | 74.4-91.3 Sao jVenezuela-- 2s 2o=-ese" Ck: ae eS ee ee 75. 0-79. 9_ Onl i655: 22-2 ees | Sees 75. 0-78. 5 eee TAZ foe ee eo Didier eee ee 76. 4-78. 4_ lo) (6.3.202_22 | eee ey Ae ae IBOLVIAe =e ee Va Sec se Se |e Se Ai Se ce | | ee Deal AES Colombia-Venezuela_} 22 | 77.2_..-...-|------- 72.0-81.4_} 25 By 15+0.31_] 2.33 | 75. 7-85.3 <a Venezuela.-_..-.----- Si ides snes |ooe eee 70. 7-81. 4_ ki) 79:0. 222-0 (eee Colombiaaes == ===e DA NGA Gs Va ee Se (ees 2 75. 6-78. 6_ 1 a 1 ees eee |e -- if eel Tierra del Fuego-_--_- 38 | 76.64+-0.32_] 2.98 | 71.4-85.4.} 20 | 77.0__--_-__|_----_- 72. 3-81. 8 1h eee ATO GN GMS sae eee 25 | 76.600. 48_| 3.54 | 70.2-85.5_| 30 | 77.97+0.46_| 3.70 | 72. 0-86.2 (ie eee AT centing=ssssew ona 42 | 76. 56-40.31_| 2.99 | 70.8-82.6_| 19 | 76.2__._____|_--____ 72. 1-82. 8 32 | 76. 56+0.38_| 3.21 | 69.9-81.8_| 23 | 74.9___._.__]_-__.__ 68. 3-79. 5 DP Cas se oe | aes 72. 5-80. 1_ DY WSbee 7S | eee Cte ee ak el Pe Lae 71. 6-79. 2_ De 6562 oe ee ee eee 66 | 75.500. 22_| 2.71 | 69.8-82.0_| 36 | 76. 780.31 2.76 | 69. 7-82. 9 TAM Es (eee P230-77150"1) CL Woeecaeccs See eeee 72. 7-80. 1 31 | 74.56--0.35:.| 2:86 | 69:1-81.6_| 18.) 75.8_..-... 12-2 2 71. 3-81. 2 25 | 74.330. 35 2.68 | 69. 3-79. 4 TOM (osigesecceee | ooo 69. 4-81. 7 10 iy Que ie abel pes 67. 0-82. 0- 4) BOA2 Sc. a eee eee 79. 8-81. 5 2 a Qu. ase eee as 73. 3-74. 6_ 2 Wid S202 = 2 eae 75. 3-75. 4 54 3 67-+40.31_] 3.38 | 66.7-82.5_| 44 | 74.41+0.33 | 3.26 | 66.3-83.9 Sheeses Hi GuaGor! 4 ee 8 kis a ee ee 69. 9-72. 6_ 40) 2. 2k 2228 67. 4-72.9 DTS eS Braz lee ae ee Ch hic ee ee ee 69. 1-74. 3_ 85 |, @wOsS- out. acoleeoesee 67. 8-72. 7 38252. (Oper) Ss 28 aE ae eee el ees eee (Tr) 3 LEN | ape | Ee 79. 2-83. 4 eee CG ODE TONES oe ea) IN | a oe een Ae See ates Sa 45803 Ol nee | eee 79. 5-83. 4 BY Gaon Para cua yore ee Saas | Lome eee See es eee WO 7002223. | 25 ee IMieantsigMAsa. se] cane esto eee coe ac nee e FO 20 sons Dosa ee eee east eee cee 23.47 |_colceaees
1 Number of series, 14; number of specimens, 571. 2 Number of series, 10; number of specimens, 388.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 33
TABLE 6.—Cranial indices of South American series: Mean height index
Male Female sd Country “ No, é No. : spec. Mean-+-p.e.| Sigma} Range spec. Mean--p.e.| Sigma} Range pL ft eae (CRE 82. 4-94. 0 || tek eee ees eee nea 87. 4-92. 0 88. 960.37 | 3.08 | 84.4-96.0 | 15 | 88.5__-_--__]______- 85. 1-90. 9 poe Ee ee ee oe 86. 4-91. 7 UO eee ee S| Re SE Bae aes SiGe aaa ee ore =: Cal. 2onlPSOn cee e sce | eee Cal 2 A Pee eee (eee 85. 5-89, 2 DE Sin ceo 86. 1-88. 2 eG e Se |e eee |S ae ae ee Le (a ee ernie | ae |e es 87.17+0.41_| 3.48 | 78.8-94.3 IAN Rett (eee ee aed [SO eee S 80. 2-88. 7
87. 164-0. 26.| 3.02 | 80.1-93.4 | 36 | 85.89-£0.36.| 3.20 | 79.5-91.5 oe ae 35_} 3.63 | 81, eee 35 | 85.08—0.37 | 3.55 | 78.3-91.8 G.3-5--—=5-|- 5.3252 al.
85. 84-40. 23_} 2.68 | 81. 2-93.6 56 | 84.98--0.25_] 2.82 | 76.9-91.8
TON PRb esate alee ae 80. 0-90. 1 (hod tite AY (ace Se a eee, 82. 7-86. 8
Vlnd Vere tae he ean eel Eee 83. 6-87. 9 LS ie een | ee |
25 | 86.6740.37_| 2.78 | 79.6-91.3 Con EGG ea eee ee a ae ee 79. 4-88. 9
Gh | 86.2 ee ee 79. 5-88. 7 (fa) sli Fae |e EEN 82. 5-88. 8
il oes meets be Ses a| nei ee es ee eeeee Cal TRGSACOS Seer a Bee fet) See eat ja Argentina 2225. 2 VP AG lite: hy arpa | (ee See C0 are) UR 3” | 77. 0-92. 6 eee =. Golombin=es ees Dil SAs Gases [oe Sa 3 83. 7-85. 4 yp) etree [2 DS | Uae | Be ae Re Bolivia 22s =- TU RST GP SS) AS SE aR oe Se ae Gl | se eee ee ee | eee a ee eee 125 Argentina 222222222 27 | 84.5140.37_| 2.82 | 78.4-89.0 | 45 | 84.68+0.30_| 2.98 | 79.3-91.2 aoa S. S Wolonibia-Venezilelaes| nels | Osa s eee ee eee ee ee | a ee aa >) (a j EAeh 1 Os SO ee 26 | 84.3540.37_| 2.77 | 78.0-91.0 RSH ESSE SSS Les pee ee aes et 19___.__| Tierra del Fuego-____ 197 S40 bess ere ae 1Ora-SBe2 || 2) SiS ssf ee 76. 6-85. 2 sabes = Areenting ee eee PANE Go see Le ee 82. 8-84. 6 TE Cay Agee Ree [eee a | Ce eee AS ee Pertees ee 2 ees 65 | 83. 200.25 | 2.96 | 77.6-91.1| 57 | 81.97+0.28_] 3.12 | 73.5-89.4 pees! Venezuela. 2 22.2 Fa eee eee aes (eee 78. 3-85. 7 ELAS GRE jee eae | A) ee Tierra del Fuego----- 38 | 82.6940. 28_| 2.52 | 77. 7-87.8 18 | 83.7 77. 5-87. 2
(Pentisee ears eeeee es Coit feet et (Per 76. 4-91. 1 32 74, 0-90. 4
Tierra del Fuego----- 26 | 82.300. 26_| 1.96 | 76. 7-85. 4 9 80. 1-87. 5 Venezuela_.......-..- Als PSU eee eile 2 77. 6-84. 4 6 74. 4-83. 6 Simvenezuelas=- S28 CON i\ i one ee! 73. 4-90. 6 4 77. 7-83. 1 Colombia-Venezuela..| 8 | 80. 5__------]______- 76. 0-82. 4 8 73. 5-82. 7 Colombia-Venezuela_.| 48 | 79.99+-0.29 | 3.00 | 72.9-86.2]| 30 73. 3-87. 3 Argentina. <2) 2s 2.7 PIN ack hr ees se oe S| ree Uehe- eh bit |e es |e Se Pee eee
eV AT te em PAA eke bbe eee See PRE 78. 1-81. 6 Gs eas eee a eee le See Venezuela-2- 25-2222 Det riot eee el He 74.4-83.0 | 26 74. 3-88. 9 Colombia-Venezuela..| 22 | 78.3__..-.--|_-...-- 65. 4-85.6 | 20 63. 5-91. 3
Taz eae eee te ah Ie Gi RR eis ae BE) Oe eee ey oes I 2 es i ee | (ee ees
COP ATU y= esac es Sa ee [oe ee ee ee ee | eee 4 84. 0-88. 1
Tet Nest 43 ih eee nee ge ee | PE eee eee er ae OE (oS 2, Ps a ee ee
PERERA Ye Ae a | Se Oe ee oe eee 4 76. 4-81. 2
TOGO Tega A ee a ee eh) (Ee eee ne ee ee is ys dn) |e eae
1 Number of series, 12; number of specimens, 494, 3 Number of series, 8; number of specimens, 317.
34 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. BE. Bull. 148
TaBLE 7.—Cranial measurements (cc.) of South American series: Cranial capacity
Male Female Series Country No. Mean-Ep. e Sigma| Range No. Mean-p. e Sigma | Range spec. Bate 8 spec DE 12: 8 ang toes Argentina___- 3: MPpsa.0_ 2.222 ease 1510-1650 1) 1490.0.--.--. 3 | 2 eee 1) ee Argentina-_-__ Oa eLb6L0- 32S 2eea| 1415-1695 i| 14750. 222.2222 | ee eee 1 fy Re Argentina____| 41 | 1531.58-13.28__| 127.28 | 1300-1765 29 | 1359.68--16.04__] 128.25 | 1185-1575 Oise! Argentina___-}| 45 | 1529.72+10.03__-| 99.68 | 1345-1720 LO} SI343.2- 22252. 3) Lee 1200-1500 19s 4 rra del PBN 1400/02 25 eee 1248-1710 10: | 93046: =: + | es 1170-1400 uego. Bisse Venezuela----| 14 | 1488:7-~ 2-2 = 2|2" == 7 == 1240-1655 | 26 | 1328. a 59__| 117.85 | 1145-1580 Choa Venezuela_.--| 10 | 1473.0_--------|-------- 1230-1595 20/°9978'3) te ee 1250-1295 eae Argentina__--| 70 | 1466.14+10.40-_] 129.03 | 1155-1770 30 | 1339. (ern 36_-| 92.26 | 1165-1541 Thi eae Argentina___-]| 76 | 1452.10+-9.48--_] 122.58 | 1295-1835 51 | 1356.56410.57__| 111.90 | 1175-1515 Jaye) ener eee 31 | 1445.00+14.23__] 105. 50 | 1180-1675 OA 1209: 08-2 22. 225s 1015-1355 TSie iW te ra del 33 | 1435.74138.37--] 113.90 | 1200-1700 19°} 1289.6: - 5-2. eae 1160-1495 uego DAR ae Braziles-s-222 32 | 1431.81-413.58--| 113.92 | 1280-1684 16:1/1266:6- 2-2-2 2} ee eee 1130-1460 i ee Venezuela_-_-- 3: 426 775 Ss eee eee 1300-1495 Ws_8 so. et ee eee eee ity eee T oe rra del 22) | AZG 25s see een eases 1260-1735 8) || d55!62=- = SS eee 1040-1550 uego. ye oe Argentina__.-| 37 | 1426.00-411.28__| 101.70 |_---------- 52 | 1310.002:10.65__| 113.90 }|_.__--_-_- San Ecuador-..--- (i ab Ons aoe | Seana 1270-1565. | 2222). 5-2 ee eee eee 39a____| Argentina____| 72 | 1417.06-411.35__] 142.85 | 1115-1710 44 | 1247.86+11.44__| 112.45 | 1010-1500 1392-3) Chiles +s 2 = 2 ATO ee ae ee eee 1250-1550 60) S60 eS eee 1100-1490 i eee Venezuela____| 46 | 1409.78+-10.14-_| 102.05 | 1155-1625 29 | 1276.30-16.12__| 128.75 | 1090-1575 Sane » 2! Venezuela__-_- Syl t40s 08 Se ees | eee eee 1304-1470 G6 /PIS6E 82222225 |e 1236-1525 Yipee Colombia- --- 2) e900 s eon cones bee aeoe 1295-1495 1. 04650-. 2e ee eee eee iff Uneado Argentina==—.1) 914) 1386:35 225 ee ee 1298-1491 Gs AQ5B Se Se = ee | eee 1100-1422 22 Venezuela-cast) 20 e766. 2- =e eae 1190-1610) ||. 021" | 1268:4525 2 = oe 1190-1400 DB epee Pere ste2 108 | 1371.92+-6.95_-_] 107.15 | 1110-1670 81 | 1205.40-+-5.92___| 79.05 | 1020-1450 (eee Colombia- Eel (es Ly i LE a a |e 1285-1490 8° 2158522 ee eee 1040-1302 Venezuela. Orisa [el ets) if Mente tae id 356.6252eceesel oe nee 1218-1498 31 | 1188.50+12.88__} 106. 35 922-1370 Miean'sigmae: = 2-25 oe ee ae ee LATS S0Ge| ek se ee ee ee eee 21103 08)|2asee-enee
1 Number of series, 11; number of specimens, 591. 2 Number of series, 9; number of specimens, 373.
TaBLE 8.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Upper face
height Male Female Series Country midis No. | yrean--p. e. | Sigma} Range |_N°-| Mean-+p.e. | Sigma| R
spec. p. e. | Sig 8€ |snec p. 6. | Sig ange 16522 AT TON tina sees see bie) ler Pak eee a ee ale 73-82 2 7.0 ee ere A ee 75-77 Oni IAT Penta eo ee Se gE a RY (SY ae eke TN ee ee 65-82 9 0:32 eee 62-79 1h ae Argentina sone = 55 | 75.89-40.34___| 3.69 69-86 | 42 a 85+40.41___| 3.96 64-80 172 -ees Tierra de] Fuego--_----- 27 | 75.89-+0.49___| 3.78 66-81 1ON e402 = oe | oes 66-85 102 AT pentina ses ese ae 94 | 74.46+0.33__.| 4.79 66-85 58 | 69.58-40.31___| 3.48 60-75 Gite Colombia-Venezuela___ 4 AOL Sse eee See 28 72-76 AN G38o2 =e So eee 57-67 ieee Tierra del Fuego 37 | 73.4140.42___] 3.77 63-83 OM 67-202. 22 = = eee 57-78 orate y Brazi ej ee ee ae 64-79 76622252 eee 60-80 192-0 Tierra del Fuego - 721 () ee hae ale a 64-80 Qi) "68ilk. 2 ae eee 62-73 20__.-.| Pera 71.98+0.37_._| 3.76 63-78 44 | 65.20+-0.26___| 2.53 59-70 Vy bee Pera 71.64+0.31___] 3.73 60-80 26: || 66:083-0/37-2<]| 28s esate 23b__-| Pert 69.12+-0.47___| 3.52 60-73 23: || (G24. o£ eee 54-70 Riel es Ecuador G80 ee eee eee 64-72) |n2 elo eee eee Doreen Pert 67.8140.28___| 4.13 56-80 65: || (63.01-£0:33__-)) 3.58 55-71 V7) eames Pert 67.5340.26___|--2. 88 62-75 50 | 65.12-+-0.38___| 3.94 57-75 7s ee Chile (Vy fs ae eee (eee, 64-72 he \:63:0.-2-. =| a eee 23a____| Pera 662022 es>= 8 eae 62-80 28 | 64.07-40.37___| 2.88 59-70 ee Ecuador GO!455 3 Se (SSeS 61-72 OD Guide setae | See 65-70 WMiean sigma: = 2-5-2222 s2h neq cde doses sone enesonse= ts Ba ol oe cae ene nega 2 SpE 23.31 |]. -cese2
£ Number of series, 9; number of specimens, 504. 2 Number of series, 7; number of specimens, 303.
Puate 5.—Skull from Cerro Tablayo, Colombia (lateralis and frontalis). Com- pare the small features with those of skull shown in plate 6, and note the low vault. Mean height index is 73.6. (Courtesy United States National Museum, skull No. 298,343.)
Plate 6—Skull from Patagonia, Argentina (lateralis and frontalis). Compare size of features with those of skull shown in plate 1, and note very high head. Mean height index is 93.8. (Courtesy United States National Museum, skull No. 264,112.)
Puate 7.—Skull from Tiahuanaco, Bolivia (lateralis and verticalis). Circular type of artificial deformity, symmetrical and elongated. (Courtesy United States National Museum, skull No. 311,212.)
PuatTEe 8.—Skull from Lake Tacarigua, near Maracay, Venezuela (lateralis and verticalis). Extreme frontal flattening. Note symmetry and roundness in the vertical view. (Courtesy United States National Museum, skull No. 378,586.)
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 35
TasBLe 9.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Maximum face breadth
Male Female
ee Country a ee. spec. Mean-+p. e. | Sigma} Range spec. Mean=+p. e. | Sigma] Range AT COntiNA =o ee 32 | 148.47-40.69_| 5.82 | 132-158 | 26 | 136.85+40.51_| 4.02 | 126-144 aPArpontinals os ones | fe ET me Nee ee | ieee le 140-152 Ne LAO NO ere | ee ee ee Arpenting sss 2 2 ee DUAG Tee a Se oe ace gk iy Py ee oe eee ee ce eae aes Arventina ee se eee JEU TOT: Ee 8 Rope Co Sask 2 140-150 OU P2520 Tee 123-138 Tierra del Fuego 26 | 143. 69-40. 58_|° 4.36 | 185-151 it) ||| devo eee | EE 123-148 (Arventinases == ne 45 | 143.138+0.48 | 4.82 | 131-151 | 39 | 135. yea 49 | 4.55 | 121-141 Tierra del Fuego_-_____- 37 | 142:383-0: 51_| 4.64 | 131-152 | 18} 181. 2.__--._-]__.____ 113-140 Tierra del Fuego-__-_-_-_-_- TOF ta VU Lee Ee ee 130-151 12 | 132. A ae oe 122-141 ez eee oe ee Ze sa F348 9s eee | ee 134-146 yal piles by ae nearees | [ae e 128-130 Avgenting™ =. 22s 32 | 138: 915-0:'69_| 5.81 | 127-1538 | 20 | 127.8_-.-___.}_____.. 116-135 (Cra Fe Sees et ee BE 2a lesadetOOde|| 204.) 120-1460)" 2301) 026) 4: ss ee 119-132 (Brazile eee ae 2 Slalersos-O1GOsl) Osd2n|| Lesley) Bn} 2b Rees soe Nee 112-140 Colombia-Venezuela___ CP EVA See As |e 130-142 £3 lid 1a ee ee | [ee ae 121-132 Mcusad or” 24-242 eeeso-= (Bs ee ee BG ACY ee ae | ees ee ies See Colonibide 20-2 e eee AP pOL Onecare | ono 135-138 SU] el $a gees Sen eal (EN Chiles eh Sa 25 | 136. 280.48 | 3.53 | 131-143 Ciel 2762 RE 122-130 Veneziela-_ 2 eo APS O10 22 es |e 127-149 (yy Ei la Sate Sen | ee 125-139 Veneznelaes 2-2 a2 5) 2s! 2b loGsO2e=ss sone eae LAG esto | ee Soc ee ee eee Peres ee se 49 | 135.69+0.44 | 4.53 | 124-145 | 53 | 124.9440.37 | 4.02 | 117-136 Perinat ee eee 27 | 135. 56-40. 67 2 17 | 123-147 1 ales i (ona = Sela Ines 128-130 AT PON png eee eee JOM S555 Sess aaa 128-142 ail eve (ee Serene eR ee 125-134 Perinat ee a2 ee 2 55 | 135. 49-40. 44 4 79 | 124-145 | 50 | 127.3040.38 | 3.97 | 117-136 Weneznelal— a ee Ge a eee el 128-144 | 25 | 124.65+0.64_| 4.76 | 116-134 Colombia-Venezuela___| 43 | 134. 58+0.43_| 4.20 | 126-143 | 27 | 125.15+0.62_| 4.77 | 116-137 (Persea ee 91 | 133.93-0.42-] 5.89 | 120-146 | 58 | 123.0340.35 | 3.95 | 115-130
Wenezeulase: 22252 8! EIS) uk par ie tes ee 125-139 6
Colombia-Venezeula___}| 18 | 132.1_....-_-]_--_--- 127-142 | 14
Silplolap eee econ ee 125-139 | 24
7A 1 ee eae 126-137 2
AV AQSNGts eas ok Sea 126-132 1
MIGADNSI PIN Bote ae re oe en ce | aa ee ee 1405) ||Seeeee nena eee eee coe 24.29
1 Number of series, 13; number of specimens, 525. 2 Number of series, 7; number of specimens, 278.
TaBLE 10.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Upper face index
Male Female peries Country re x 0. . 0. = spec. Mean-+p.e.| Sigma) Range spec. Mean=p. e.|Sigma| Range
Gees. AT CeNtiNnger so aes oe Gl 5b5 02222225 |e 53. 4-57. 1 AOA ecco e ea aeons 51. 4-59. 8 1O=. | Argentina: =-2_ 2b =ss" = 28 | 54.18-0.41-} 3.22 | 48.3-60.9 PAU Rass i [ae (eee ae 49. 2-59. 5 (ieee Colombia-Venezuela - Z| has ay Ce Ne ee) 50. 7-55. 6 ge OU 5 eS ee = 46. 0-53. 6 >), aa Chiletaeeee. ern 1s is Ae ee ES as. 48. 4-55. 8 De ee ee a ee ee een Dt Pers) 2 ee ee 43 | 53.07+0.31_] 2.98 | 46. 1-62.1 39 | 52.44+0.24.| 2.18 | 48. 5-56.8 (coe Tierra del Fuego-__-_-_- 26 | 52.68+0.40_] 2.99 | 45.9-59.3 Gulesot Oseaeenes |e eee = 51. 8-58. 6 1a Argventina:-22—: Sulbogsb seo se sacle eer e PONG Gas | eee eee ome es |e oe 1 Por en ee DAY (tay) ee eee ees 48. 0-57. 0 vt | Ole Oa pee a ee ell ee yee. raze eee 1 Oe a A ee ee Seen ee 45. 4-56. 4 Lise adie ye Cee ee) eee 48, 4-57.1 it ee Tierra del Fuego____- 37 | 51.63440.33_| 2.98 | 45. 0-56. 8 TST GON Sas - se een 45, 4-56. 1 iy Wee Argentina 5-5. 35 | 51.00+0.30_| 2.63 | 46.0-57.0 25 | 52. ieee 41 3.03 | 48. 0-58. 0 One Tierra del Fuego-_---- LO NEDO See ae 8 eee 46. 2-53. 8 OR ols ose eee see oe 47. 8-54. 1 eeoas Peni ee een 84 | 50.740. 23_| 3.08 | 43. 7-59. 5 52 | 51. rigea 18_| 1.97 | 47. 5-56.3 Pi memet Perties <2 Joist a eOO sess ee Be 48. 9-52. 6 1 Sapa? eae See Ce Se 47. 6-61. 2 9.7 gee Iti (ke oe ene es 47 | 48. 82-0. 24 2.46 | 44. 8-55. 0 42 | 50. Sige 32_| 3.06 | 43.9-58.6 Gries ecuador AANA Te a Las 47.3-51.8 PA | Ty ee ey ae ee 48, 9-53. 4 JAN Vy | [BLE 5 ee ee a 32 | 49.48+0.39_| 3.28 | 42. 1-54.9 23 49.6 eS oer 45. 9-54. 4 peered) Ecuador. 222-2. Gara Oiiteee == (eee 44, 6-54. 2 PH ai RG eee SS ee 52. 0-56. 0 LOLIGSTST UC] Tg eS ee WAS | | Se Se Se en ae eee D256; ec ccneces
1 Number of series, 8; number of specimens, 332. 4 Number ofseries, 4; number of specimens, 158.
794711—50——4
36 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
TasLe 11.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Orbital height
Male Female Series No. Wa. Country spec. ; — Mean-p. e. |Sigma| Range spec Mean--p. e. | Sigma] Range
Venermielac..-- 2325-2822 16>|)38:0- 2225.25. |22=25== 35-41 5.) 3005 222-2 a ee 35-38 Wenezlelf asc. ss sees IGS) es iC eee fe 34-40 | 27 | 34.56-0.27___| 2.09 31-40 Pere eo ne eo 32 | 36.48+-0.25___| 1.88 S2=41) | * 235 34:9 55.22 eee 30-39 FAT CentiNa: 258222 nen es 31 | 36.42+0.34___| 2.81 30=42' |, 2163) 35:42 eee 32-40 Tierra del Fuego -_----- 12s RSGsE eee eee 34-40), 12) 34:82. 2-2 eee 33-37 Argentinas. 22522. -==-=— LU tic oa | re Bee eee 33-39 | 35.5 -— 2252/2 ee IAT OGTILINS 2 on eee 105 | 35.95-0.13_-_| 1.91 32-40 | 59 | 34.77-40.16___| 1.82 31-38 Argentina 22220 5<2-- = 55 | 35.81-40.18___| 2.01 31.40 | 45 | 34.64+-0.20___| 2.06 31-39 Areentinal 9 2*2- 2224 122 | 35.69-40.12___| 1.94 31-40 | 41 | 35.83-40.21___| 1.99 30-39 Chiles 25 | 35.68-0.22_._| 1.67 Colombia- Venezuela - -- SUICS5'G2 see See Colombia-Venezuela_-_-} 22 | 35.5.--------|------- Tierra del Fuego -_----- 39 | 35.44+0.23___| 2.12 Headers Dalnaorae eee | eee Tierra del Fuego_____-- 27 | 35.33-0.23_._| 1.80 Argentina=22 3-5-2 117 | 35.382+0.13___} 2.01 IATCeN tina se eee ee Al ial lo aye lame, Se S| 5 lhe Veneztielas 22-225 ees by fs fa ese eal lara Chiles eee Aa |b Oe ees eee Peres. 2.225 es eee ee 107 | 34.92+0.10___| 1.49 Ecuador 2223 MN O|RSAiG S22 es eee ee Argentina: 222 ee = = bel Sy, ames ties | RS A Brazile: ose ee Sod OeLs cee |e Colombia-Venezuela__-} 47 | 34.55-40.18___| 1.88 30-38 | 27 | 33.7040.18--| 1.38 31-37 Pert: 2220S 82 | 34.3440.13___| 1.77 30-38 | 31 | 34.18+40.18___| 1.52 |__--___- Perit Me eee eee 61 | 34.20-40.12 | 1.54 31-37 | 57 | 33.050.16___| 1.81 28-37 Brazil: ees 26 | 34.12+0.26___} 1.95 3140] 145 233:6.. .- eee 31-37 Perth see haere ee ho 51 eee ee ae 31-40 | 32] 34.09+-0.24.__| 1.99 30-38 Vieneziela 22-2223) 2 ei Ws ae ae 31-38 6) 340 Ss eee 32-35 Pertiies: oe ees Seer 58 | 33.53-40.15___} 1.65 30-37 | 51 | 33.82+-0.15___| 1.56 29-37 Brazile ok See or ee Tipoonlee sete eee 29-35 6) 32:45 .2 2a eo
IVieéany Sig aes sase oe eee eee enn ee bi TSR. Ul ee ee ee rE 3.1.79) 22225e=
1 Number of series, 15; number of specimens, 934. 2 Number of series, 11; number of specimens, 515.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 3d
TABLE 12.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Orbital breadth
Male Female ae Country S © < 0. P 0. : spec. Mean+p. e. | Sigma} Range spec. Mean=p. e. | Sigma} Range
ih Whilet-- 2... ase 25 | 42. aes 2022 elas 39-45 (al PER Waters ees ee os 37-41 i Tierra del Fuego------- So galosa= see Soe os 39-44 Sihoo. Gas esas e a 37-42 aS. pPATPenting == 2.s<sase= Aig) 2 ee ae ee 37-44 Yin ol Ce ee ae 36-42 i IBTAgILNR =. So eee os 26 | 40.92-+-0.22__) 1.66 37-44 140) (S03 Ge oe eee 36-45 Cf aa Argentina: --3-- seen 30 | 40.5740. 25__| 2.06 36-46 LG ete (eens eee 35-43 oes KVeneztlelaee=a=- =o eon TW ees ee So el ae ee 37-43 | 27 | 37,74+0.13_-| 1.78 3442 eee Parti eeu = 25. Bee es 32 | 40.24+0.47_.| 1.44 37-43 23 37. ps ee ees eee | eee ee 33-42 i CHA GOPS sacecs =o aS DG 4 ON eae aes AS BB 42} |= Sos] Seat aoa ee es S|, i ae Tierra del Fuego-_-_-____ 31 rs 03-0. 20__| 1.49 38-44 a ts ee Cee eee 36-42 oes = Argentina_-----------__ Oi | AON 0 ee ae oe eee 37-43 Dy) 408 OSes 223 Jaa | pees eee 0: i ae 4 ry (Vee Se Spee (eerie Pee 40-40 ANOLE S22 22 eee ek is INTs CY: ee 105 | 39.52+-0.13__} 1.93 36-45 59 | 37.93-40.20_-| 2.31 33-41 ite Ibert 32 eee 81 | 39.5140.13__] 1.73 35-44 SL) | 30. 90S- OF 19S) 155 [L822 ) IP eriteso see Se 59 | 39.08+0.15__| 1.70 34-42 52 | 38.640. 12__ 1, 28 35-43 ome Menador==< 2. === 2s. Gi Poh) O22 ee ee 38-40 BOs See Soak Wee oe 38-40 oi aa Arconting. <= sons | 122 | 38.97+0.15__| 2.52 28-46 | 41 | 38.51+40.21__} 1.99 32-42 pes Woneznela-2 22-2 ses ROO e eaese ee ts oe ee 36-41 Dogs aoe aes eee Bho ee Gaeee Colombia-Venezuela___| 8 | 38.9_________]---____ 36-42 Bul eRe a ceneaee 34-40 (oe Wenezuiela. == 22. ---3-¢ ! UG Sid iG Sc bre ee een ee OE 36-42 Bil Wate Osea e ans | mena 37-39 2_____.| Colombia-Venezuela__-| 22 |} 38.6._....___|---_-.- Bite toll Oa US Bee ee ee oe 34-40 16252 —. Argentina plea sce son=ee ES th Cisse ee el (Ee aes 37-40 2 |VALS Ota = oS | ee 40-42 ieee || Arpentina== 9... .2-.<_. 43 | 38.46+0.14__| 1.38 37-43 55 | 39.60+-0.17_-} 1.53 31-41 uaeeen|| Argentine: 2 9 -—-- ==. 5 116 | 38.37+0.10__] 1.58 36-42 | 69 | 37.10+0.17__| 2.13 28-41 le 2 Vets) oO lesion Ee ee ea 63 | 38.17+0.12__} 1.37 34-42 58 | 36.50+0.16__| 1.36 34-39 i s Colombia-Venezuela__-| 47 | 38.15+0.15__] 1.49 35-41 | 27 | 37.2240.19__| 1.47 35-40 Paes Peri =) 22 ee SitlRoygieee aera eee a 35-40 | 31 | 35.55+0.16__| 1.32 33-38 3h Se iMenezuelaiisc = 2-2 2-3 CGY EUs see 2 | Se ee 35-39 GfleS652 eee 2 Ba cee 35-38 7) ee Pertimess 8 es ets Ss 108 | 36.83+-0.10__] 1.61 33-41 77 *| 35.09+0.12__| 1.52 32-40 07 | ae Braz e ee! ee) GilesGrS ease one |e ne ae 35-38 47 (SGNOL Se ao ae 35-38 NUEGr hea 00 2 Se ee ee ee NGS ewan as ae cee es 21566) |beoae- se
1 Number of series, 14; number of specimens, 888. 2 Number of series, 11; number of specimens, 527.
38 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
TaBLE 13.—Cranial indices of South American series: Orbital index
Male Female sg Country ne Mean-+p.e.|}Sigma| Range re Mean-tp.e.| Sigma} Range y eee Venezuela_____----- 167} 98; Lace < Sal eee 90. 2-102. 5 Ds SORE AS See ell eee 92. 1-102. 7 OR ee let eS St ee 106 | 95.07+40.34_| 5.14 | 79.3-108.6 | 75 | 97.53+-0.41.| 5.22 | 85.7-115.1 7a 1s VAl ae eee ee Lia) Wht Geo ree 84. 2-100. 0 7 a as ee | [os 80. 6-111. 4 30ntee| PArcentina se -2)sses5 116 | 91.94+0.36_] 5.83 | 77.5-108.3 41 | 92. ee 70_| 6.68 | 76.1-112.5 eee et bia- Vene- 2 PB ioe Se ae 85. 7-100. 0 2) (05: tee ool eee 83. 8-100. 0 zuela. 162--. - Argentina____----.- O18 <=: 223 |Leese 85. 0-100. 0 D1 O13 2- ell Se 87.6— 95.0 Soest Argentina__ 91.74-40.45_| 7.34 | 76.0-125.0] 68 | 93.7740.51_| 6.19 | 77.5-125.0 Ose | Perte 2 cece 91. 680.62.) 5.17 | 75.0-105.3 23° ||-95)0. 252255 80. 0- 97.5 ORS Arcentina-s2=ss2 a" 91.64+0.42_| 6.39 | 65.8-108.3 60 | 91.06++0.45_| 5.17 | 79. 5-100.0 6a Golonthia-V ene: pa Goa SS | eee 88. 8- 97.3 81158954. >> | Sa 83. 3- 94.4 zuela Cemeroe Venezuela__...-._-- 1 AU 8) (es eae a | Noe eS 83.7- 95.1 | 27 | 91.62+0.57_| 4.36 | 82.0-102.6 Osa Pent ct 2 eases oe LO} PO aa |e 84. 9-105. 7 36 | 95.53+0.63_| 5.62 | 85.8-109.5 Bae. Venezuela_._---__-- RCO Seas Sees 86. 1- 97.4 6) 942022. 522 eee 94.1- 97.1 D4 teed HCuaGOn= Ss sesso ee Fa ALA bee | oe ee 77. 5-105. 0 2) 100802.= 1 Poe 100. 0-100. 0 i eas ARE ON TNs see eee 56 | 90. 58--0.40_| 4.45 | 79.1-100.0 45 | 92.11+40.60_| 6.03 | 81.6-109.7 ee Argentin geese. os. oe 29 | 90.50+0.96_| 7.64 | 75.0-105.3 14 || S2ig esa a eee 80. 5-105. 3 is Lees Polo la Viene: 47 | 90.48-+0.48.| 4.88 | 81.1-102.7 27 | 90.58-40.45 | 3.50 | 84.2- 97.2 zuela | ae eee Venezuela__._.--.._ Bi ONO Se eee ee 85. 3- 95.0 i) 86.5... SS eee 20a Pere a ae eee 60 | 89.43-40.34_] 3.94 | 81.0- 97.4 58 | 90.62-L0.42_| 4.78 | 73.7-100.0 iD ee PATSeNTINAl= esos eo 52 | 89.23-40.52_| 6.62 | 75. 0-102. 5 60 | 94.17+0.34_] 3.96 | 83.8-105.3 ere, Argentinas. =2- (Gl ices a eee | ee 84. 6- 97.5 1 H 7) ee Bere are a 81 | 88.18+0.44_| 5.50 | 77.0-109.0 31 19h. s Therradelybuegozos| TShiSisG-ee- = ee 81.4— 93.8 8 Rien Ss Tierra del Fuego___} 31 | 87.62+0.63_] 4.63 | 75.9- 95.2 18 PA ee @hilo=22--s ee ASS see | ee 87. 5- 87.5 1 So ae Ecuador 1D | (SGol see = Ses. ee 79. 6- 91.5 3 DP ae Pentti on 5 eee 64 | 86.00-+0.36_| 4.21 | 79.0-101.8 53 ipa Se @hilese==— -222- -| 25 | 85.1240. 60 4.48 | 77.4- 93.0 6 1 i, Ne ee Argentina 1G, | B8bnO22e2 Aes ee 76. 1- 97.3 7 25. fee Brazil 26 | 83.49+0.56_| 4.22 | 75.6- 93.0 14 Mean Silom deen cn san et ant ene ea tes ee a 1D SOO Ye poets eee oe ee ee ee 9 4,05 | cee eee
1 Number of series, 15; number of specimens, 950. <Number of series, 12; number of specimens, 581.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 39
TaBLE 14.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Nasal height
Male Female Berle Country i. - i 0. F 0.
spec. Mean-+p. e. | Sigma| Range spec. Mean-+p. e. | Sigma| Range {ees Argentina=--225sece--=— 29 | 55.76+0.46__| 3.65 48-64 16g (2535082225 22 |e e 48-64 eee = Wenezuela-_---==.-=22"- EO hie ee eS eee 51-59 27 | 50.18-+0.40_-| 3.09 42-55 2 (aaa ravi seseae + eee ee fie | Ea es) 50-57 AD F488 ieee ee eee 44-54 ee Argentina. 22---=----- 55 | 54.07+0.27__| 3.05 46-61 44 | 51. 00 27.-| 2.66 45-57 as Argentina==-2-2-2-2->= |) ee) esol sseeer= 50-60 1 i aaa Tierra del Fuego------- 26 | 53.7740.40__| 3.05 46-60 10 OSS == Argentina-.-<0-22=--2-— 90 | 53.6640. 23_-| 3.05 47-60 | 59 mates iPerde. potcke ot eee, 31 | 53.12+0.23__} 1.76 45-54 | 23 ASR os Wenezilela---=-s--22=.2 ey | eS oe el eee 49-57 5 i Argentina__...--------- AGS NOO* Queenan 2) eee Ee 48-59 | 7 L6EL Argentina: =--2-2--=2--— lis, Mate Sees eel ee 49-58 2 Lees = Tierra del Fuego- ------ 38 | 52.74+0.33__} 3.02 46-62 | 19 04} ae Legs vAl CSS Rees ee 30 | 52.40+0.34__| 2.75 45-58 15 i Tierra del Fuego_------ 2a O2n eee ses | ome 53-56 | 11 13222-= Onilet a2 ee ees 25 | 52.12+0.35__] 2.58 46-57 6 7 G@olombia-Venezuela—2| 22°)551. 9. 2 -__ ales. = 44-56 | 17 eee. Colombia-Venezuela___| 44 | 51.89+0.24 | 2.35 46-58 | 25 dame Venezuela.-: 2-5-2. = ACPO Oe eee aan Smee! 48-55 6 Greet: Colombia-Venezuela._-| 8 | 51.6_________]----___ 46-55 8 ee (Pertieee se eee ee 82 | 50.75+0.18__| 2.36 46-57 | 31 7 ea iB ciadons 222s | ROOSGS see ee tee 46-53 By eae (pi aoe ome 45-47 i IVenezle lat ase ee Let lates Ug: eee ea ae CV Eth ate eee ee ee ee Pee ?, ee Ieyy fa ee ae 66 | 50.29+-0.23__| 2.78 44-56 56 | 46.50-++0.20__-| 2.19 41-51 AST: LES TVA) eee OR SS ee (sh (a el | ro 43-57 BN AD heen a a eee 44-46 mgED >= PATO OT tN Ae. ae ee ee eS 119 | 49.660. 23__| 3.71 40-63 39 | 48.26+40.27_-| 2.50 43-52 Beers... CHACOR Se eee ee TTS RAG GF ee es AG=544b. Se Cee tee ele SE eee 73 Chilek=! Seas) Faker Aa PAGO eee | ee 46-51 Pe | CAO a= Sea eee es ee 73 IPerG ss 25) eee 112 | 48.99+0.19__| 3.03 42-57 74 | 45.72+0.22__| 2.74 39-52 22. ==- Perino e eeee 65 | 48.60+0.19__} 2.31 44-53 54 | 46.63--0.24.-| 2.59 42-53 23S eth fe ee oy eee ee |e 43-54 37 | 46.24+0.28__] 2.56 42-51 ( olgmpineace eee 2a AG: Ob |e 46-46 Me \fez: Sa ea ee IVIGATSIGTTin es see Sees Wey Se are eee ee Sree DER DY |e er SS er en UDG \esesaae =
1 Number of series, 14; number of specimens, 812. 2 Number of series, 10; number of specimens, 446.
40 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
Tas LE 15.—Cranial measurements (mm.) of South American series: Nasal breadth
Male Female Seles! Country | NS ie Mean-+p. e. |Sigma} Range es Mean-+p. e. | Sigma | Range 23b7e-||| Pent m2 3 2) ee E39 Lhe Arr entiiaes 2 ee 9 2h ee Colombia-Venezuela._.| 22 Bie eee Weneztela:2.5 2253.2 14 Sale| Vieneziela===25_ 5 2s 32 4 tae AT ON tina ee se eee 28 sae Colombia-Venezuela___| 44 cee 8 Heuwsdore sot 10 16232. ATI ONtINA Sos eee 5 1 [ee Arce fing 22 sae ne 55 Wes, Chiles se — 2 seen ets. A 25 102 ‘Arcenting: 2-2. 22 ees! 88 Ae Argentina oo) ees 16 19: Se Tierra del Fuego_______ 12 eos) Brazile Ac ee 30 Geen | EN CHAGOR 228 o- a eee 5 ty oe Tierra del Fuego_______ 26 (ae ae Menlezuelatsa= aeons 13
21-28 | 30 | 23.670. 19 1556) |3=- 222 19-30 | 56 | 23. 09-L0. 14 1. 57 20-27
Oe hI 2b Oe see ae wade eee 99298 Ili. Pee 2 5nl ns | a | 91-95 |) 3 | 2D. 7c. Le 22-23 Mean sipmia st5 3 2 ea Be ee el hy Use 2 Bo ee SE SE 2 See es ek 276i ee
1 Number of series, 14; number of specimens, 799. 2 Number of series, 9; humber of specimens, 416.
Vol. 6] SKELETAL REMAINS—STEWART AND NEWMAN 41
TaBLE 16.—Cranial indices of South American series: Nasal index
Male Female ag Country A “ spec. Mean-+p.e.| Sigma} Range spec. Mean-p. e.| Sigma] Range BOs = = Biaz ieee s sens eee I ec ae cee ae |e Set eee nt em 2 hace hy [ae nee Se eee a ffs Ss UE on Colombia-Venezuela-_} 22 | 51.6___-..._|___-__- 44,4-61.4 VAP OU ae ee a ee 44, 9-58.3 a Newador 2222.2 522- os ti Si eee Se | 45. 0-57.9 Sal pOl Ose ene ee eee 47. 9-53.1 pee = Colombia. 22-2225 Di gone ee 2 50. 6-52. 2 FA | G2 ss eee | Se Se es 1 eee Argentinga:§-o2ose=—-— OF eOL Ope soe ibe coe 47, 6-58. 0 As | gare ne | ern eee ae ee Weneztielati 222) 22 CaN as Uy Os OS ee ee 47. 2-54. 5 (| ERE oes Ss oe Se 45. 1-51. 6 7) ee ET) i ae ee 63 | 50.06-+0.34_| 3.94 | 42.3-60.0 53 | 50.55+0.35 | 3.76 | 44.0-57.1 77a eee Brazile aoe Pye | PAQE Sete eee eee eee 43. 8-53. 4 col [tb ap ae eg See) 47. 7-53. 3 238-_..- Een eS a cate taSee Sa SOUS E ee ae 44.9-55.8 37 | 50.43+0.41_| 3.72 | 42.4-60.9 ores IBertieees anne ee es 111 | 49.63-+40.28_} 4.45 | 38.9-61.7 71 | 51.55+0.38_| 4.71 | 40.0-62. 2 i a Gr lacit ia venceasla 44 | 49.45+0.45_| 4.41 | 40.0-58.7 | 24 | 53.6__--____]_-_____ 43. 4-65.9 3 eee ATventiNa= =. <255=-55- 117 | 49.35+0.29_| 4.65 | 35.4-58.1 38 | 50.11-40.44_| 3.99 | 40.0-57.4 Pee cna orn =— ee Ba hag santas | ae 37. 7-58. 7 OF Gye eee el eee 55. 3-60. 0 P34 as SB NT 2s) a ee aS 31 ra 24+0.54_| 4.50 | 42.6-63.0 on ROls OFS: ess pares 41. 4-53. 5 . —— IB Glivias=-2 2 ee 1 LCE eat | | SI ee Se ON | oS Se a (See ee! Ee aan ae owe. Argentina. soso} <8 5 re NES ew eee 43. 1-52. 7 QA t4 bso eee ea ee 44, 2-46.1 Bae. = Molonibis- Veneziela=|w, 15 pasng noes es | ee ee ee ee |e |e ae ee le eee een Venezela----- 5-5 52- Bla ee) eae Sl ee 44,1-52.8 | 27 | 48.69+0.52_| 3.97 | 41.6-55.6 ib ae Chile Ss 22 See 25 | 48.64+0.42.| 3.10 | 44.4-56.5 Gy) E485 7a eens | aee ee 46. 1-51.0 Denon a= Chines Ai || AB Gir se ea ee Ne | 39. 2-56. 5 DG AGS Ba ee GE He Boreo se IBRAZ eee ee ee es 7A Re Ys eee | |e ARN IA ONO | een eran sae eee |S ee | een ee 2 \saee (PER eee es 60 | 47.900. 23_| 2.62 | 39.6-55.6 | 55 | 50.09+-0.36_| 3.93 | 40.0-61.0 7) Perak st eee se 82 | 47.49+0.31_] 4.14 | 37.0-57.0 316000305 552)" “40527-2222 = etl ‘Argentina:-.....-.- 55 | 47.45+0.34_| 3.77 | 38.6-56.2 | 44 | 48.11+0.41_| 4.04 | 37.0-58.0 7 Brazile ae ea 30 | 47.424-0.43_| 3.53 | 40.0-52.9] 15 | 46.7__.-____|_______ 40. 9-53. 9 Obra. Arpentina=—~-=5 22-522 26) 47 37-- 0. 474|) 3.00. | 4320-54591], 13 | 478222 22 el 42. 2-52.9 pare Arcenting= 222255222" LRT gz Gs teen Ne) eee ee 43. 1-52.9 (ihe | PsP st ps SESE e es OE 51. 1-53. 6 ip ae ATEentINa ses. oo soe 51 | 47.04-40.32_| 3.41 | 37.9-58.7 | 58 | 49.88--0.50_] 5.61 | 38. 2-64.5 eee Tierra del Fuego-__-___ 38 | 46.95+40.42_| 3.80 | 38.0-54.4 | 19 | 47.3__.-.___]---___- 38. 5-61. 4 NOL === PAT Penna = eae eae 91 | 46.72+0.31_| 4.23 | 37.0-61.7 58 | 49.06-+-0.34_] 3.79 | 43.1-59.6 (O25 ae Colombia-Venezuela_}| 8 | 46.7__.__-__|_-_____ 41. 5-50.9 89 408 G8 Se Sa ces 42, 3-54.1 Ae 2 Venezuela..___...-.=- ASSP AGHG Six 2 Sone SEP 2 38. 9-53.1 tay | dah ioe Vers Se ee ee 43. 7-58. 3 jee ae Wenezelas-- 2.22 22 AP 4G S40 meen. alee ose 2D TBE AGC TO Lat |e hel | ee Ra S| | net ee ee i eae Tierra del Fuego-__-___ 26 | 46.07-+-0.58_| 4.35 | 37.7-56.5 | 10 | 47.4._-___-_]_-____- 39. 7-54. 4 TO. Tierra del Fuego__-__- 1 cA A i es in 4057-5059) || 1 40542 os oes 45. 8-53. 8 at ees IBOlivi aes ees See Me | RAD Oe he A ee ecten ee | ine eee eer ene | Bene en See ae Be le eee 2 7; (es IBTAZ ae ee Te big: A eee |e ae 40. 0-45. 2 Ch) CYC Peeeee ad (Oe See 42. 5-52.3 7) ae ETT AT gS eee eae een | reece | USOC eee et ge | ees Sey ee PI Map EO ees Ss S| (5 ae 50. 0-54. 3 3{o eee (Opava GY Se a eS ee ee ee ee RE CB Pe 1) a | aed a 46. 7-52.0 leas - HD RT SAE TEA Ye ee | en | ee nee eee an R Cel Seren De aG ie =e See |e ee eae WVEGATESIZ Ia eer ee cnn in Sn ee cee 15S O0 |e ees ae eer ee ets ee 2420228 soe 1 Number of series, 15; number of specimens, 850. 3 Number of series, 10; number of specimens, 472. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Skull.—Bastos d’Avila, Handbook this vol., p. 74; Broca, 1876; Broesike, 1880; Canestrini and Moschen, 1879; Constanzé6, 1942 a; Del Campana, 1902; Eaton, 1916; Ecker, 1878; Ehrenreich, 1887; Ernst, 1887 c; Flower, W. H., 1907; Fridolin, 1898; Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1906 b; Gusinde, 1939; Hansen, 1888; Hensel, 1870; Hrdli¢éka (in Dabbene, 1911); Hultkrantz, 1898; Hyades and Deniker, 1891; Imbelloni, 1923 a; Jij6n y Caamafio, 1912; Kunike, 1911; Lacerda, 1885; Lacerda and Rodrigues Peixoto, 1876; Latcham, 1904 a, 1904 b; Lehmann- Nitsche, 1916 a; MacCurdy, 1923; Mantegazza and Regalia, 1886; Marcano, 1890 a, 1890 b, 1891, 1893 a, 1893 b; Marelli, 1913 a; Mehnert, 1893; Newman, 1943; Otis, 1880; Outes, 1924; Péch, 1938; Quevedo A., 1941-42; Rey, 1880; Rivet, 1908; Rodrigues Peixoto, 1885; Schaaffhausen, 1877, 1879-80; Sergi, G.,
42 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
1891; Spengel, 1874; Stewart, 1942 a, 1943 a, 1943 d, 1943 e; Ten Kate, 1892, 1904; Torres, L. M., 1911; Turner, 1884; Verneau and De la Vaulx, 1902; Virchow, 1872 a, 1874 a, 1874 b, 1886 b, 1894; Walter, Cathoud, and Mattos, 1937; Wieger, 1884; Zimmermann, 1935.
Skeleton.—Anthony and Rivet, 1908; Chillida, 1943; Genna, 1928; Gusinde, 1939; Hrdli¢éka, 1938; Jazzetta, 1928; Klimann, 1938; MacCurdy, 1923; Maran- goni, 1907; Marcano, 1893 a, 1893 b; Martin, 1892, 1893-94; Pastore, 1935-37; Sabatini, 1933; Sergi, S., 1928; Stewart, 1943 a; Torres, L. M., 1911; Vallois, 1928-32, 1932; Vignati, 1924 a, 1924 b, 1925 a, 1925 b, 1925 e.
Other references on anthropometry not cited in the text—Antognoli, 1933-34; Barras de Aragén, 1932; Biasutti, 1910; Blake, 1878; Burmeister, 1873; Busk, 1873; Buxton et al., 1938; Cipriani, L., 1930; Constanzé6, 1941, 1942 b, 1942 e; Davis, 1867, 1873; De la Hitte and Ten Kate, 1897; Dillenius, 1913; Dorsey, 1894; Duerden, 1897; Duhousset, 1873; Ernst, 1870; Giachetti, 1905; Giuffrida- Ruggeri, 1906 a; Gusinde, 1928 a; Gusinde and Lebzelter, 1927, 1933; Hacker, 1902; Haddon, 1897; Hamy, 1902; Hartt, 1941; Henckel, 1933 a; Hinrichsen, 1930; Hoyos Sainz, 1911 a, 1911 b; Hrdliéka, 1943; Hultkrantz, 1907, 1936; Huxley, 1868; Imbelloni, 1942; Klimek, 1929, 1939; Kollmann, 1884; Kunike, 1915; Kupffer and Bessel-Hagen, 1880; Lebzelter, 1933; Lissauer, 1904 a, 1904 b; Lorena, 1911; Marelli, 1912; Martin, 1896; Mérejkowsky, 1882; Mies, 1896; Morton, 1839; Netto, 1942; Outes, 1912; Quatrefages and Hamy, 1882; Rabl- Riickhard, 1881-82; Ranke, 1900, 1909; Riccardi, 1886; Riidinger, 1889; Sankas, 1930; Schmidt, E., 1886; Schreiber, 1909; Sera, 1912; Sergi, G., 1887; Sergi, G., and Moschen, 1887; Stewart, 1939; Stolyhwo, 1906; Szombathy, 1884; Ten Kate, 1896 a; Torres, L. M., 1907; Turner, 1884; Vergara Flores, 1901, 1903; Virchow, 1872 b, 1874 c, 1884, 1885, 1887, 1892; Vram, 1900 b, 1901, 1904 a; Wilson, 1876; Wyman, 1871, 1874.
Other general references on skull.—Cobb, 1933; Dixon, 1923; Gosse, 1860-63; Hrdligka, 1911; Martin, 1928; Meigs, 1857, 1866; Mochi, 1912; Oyarzin, 1940; Ried, 1863; Rochereau, 1938; Sergi, G., 1906; Vignati, 1938; Virchow, 1897 ¢; Wilson, 1863.
Other references giving observations on the skull.—Anoutchine, 1878; Collins, H. B., Jr., 1926, 1927; Dorsey, 1897; Giglioli, 1891; Gosse, 1860; Hrdliéka, 1907 b, 1940 b, 1941; Lacerda, 1876; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1910; Marelli, 1909, 1913 b; Moodie, 1921, 1928 f, 1929 b; Morales Macedo,§1917 b, 1917 d, 1939; Outes, 1908, 1911-12; Rusconi, 1940, 1941; Sullivan, 1920,§1922;;Ten Kate, 1896 b; Thibon, 1903; Vignati, 1925 a; Villagra Cobanera, 1937, 1939; Wright, H. B., 1939, 1940.
Other references giving observations on the skeleton.—Hrdli¢ka, 1932, 1934 a, 1934 b; Pastore, 1933-34; Ten Kate, 1896 b; Vignati, 1925 d.
Other references dealing especially with mummies.—Barras de Aragén, 1909; Bellamy, 1842; Blasio, 1900 b; Dawson, 1927, 1928 a, 1928 b; Manouvrier, 1889; Senéze, 1877; Trotter, 1943; Uhle, 1901; Vram, 1904 b, 1907; Williams, H. U., 1927.
DEFORMITY, TREPHINING, AND MUTILATION IN SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN SKELETAL REMAINS
By T. D. Stewart
Three kinds of artificial changes have been observed frequently in the skeletons of South American Indians. These are cranial deformity, trephining, and dental mutilation. Bones showing amputations have been found in Pert but are far from being as common as Mochica pottery represents.
Deformity.—Intentional shaping of the head in infancy was being practiced by a number of Indian tribes when they were first seen by Europeans (Hdk., 2:236; 4:526), but the practice was probably on the wane and in most places soon was banned. In prehistoric times there were three general centers of cranial deformity on the continent: (1) The Caribbean coast, with an extension through the Antilles; (2) the Pacific Coast in the region of Ecuador, Pert, and North Chile and extending back into the Highlands; and (3) the Coast of Argentina in the region of Rio Negro and other Patagonian valleys. It is con- venient to consider these centers separately, although they are not altogether discontinuous.
(1) The Caribbean center is Jimited to Colombia, Venezuela, prob- ably British Guiana, and all of the inhabitable islands of the Antilles. Marcano (1893 a, 1893 b) has described some specimens from the upper reaches of the Orinoco drainage. There is no evidence that the custom extended much farther inland. Neither is there evidence that this custom spread from the Antilles into the Southeastern United States. Also, it is absent from Panam4é and thus there is no direct connection with the Maya center.
The deformity here is predominantly of one type and should be classified as parallelo-fronto-occipital (or tabular oblicua of Imbel- loni); that is, the frontal and occipital parts of the skull have been altered by pressure exerted in directly opposite directions. However, the occiput usually is not flat but is symmetrically rounded, whereas usually the frontal is markedly flattened and even concave. From this form it is judged that a small board was placed on the frontal and held in place either by a band passing around the occiput or by attachment to the ends of a board shaped to the occiput. Some of
43
44 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
the early writers speak of the use of two boards, and yet it is difficult to visualize such an arrangement in the cases where the frontal is more extremely distorted than the occiput.
The only evidence of the antiquity of this custom here comes from Cuba. Harrington found undeformed ‘‘Ciboney”’ skulls that appeared to antedate the Arawak and Carib who practiced deformity.
(2) The Pacific Coast center begins in Ecuador and includes most of Pert, Bolivia, Northwest Argentina, and North Chile. There is no evidence as yet of the presence of this custom in southwestern Colombia connecting the Pacific and Caribbean centers. For instance, deformed skulls have not yet been found in association with the San Agustin culture (Pérez de Barradas, 1938). However, at the southern end of this area there is probably a thin connection with the Patagon- ian center.
In this great area all the principal types of deformity were present at different times or in different places. Little is known about the distribution and types in Ecuador, but at Paltacalo, near the coast, the parallelo-fronto-occipital type occurs (Rivet; per. com.). In North Pert, or at least in the Mochica area, the type becomes fronto- vertico-occipital (or tabular erecta of Imbelloni); in South Coastal Pert it is chiefly parallelo-fronto-occipital; in the Highlands of Pert and Bolivia it is chiefly circular; in Northwest Argentina it is again fronto-vertico-occipital; and in North Chile it is parallelo-fronto- occipital. Imbelloni’s article in the present volume should be con- sulted for further details.
Imbelloni (1933) has made the most comprehensive survey of this region that thus far has been undertaken. Yet he was ignorant of the types in some places, and this led him to certain erroneous gen- eralizations. Latcham (1937) has corrected these generalizations as they apply to North Chile and adjacent areas. Also, the writer (Stewart, 1943 a, 1943 c) has called attention to other errors in connec- tion with Coastal Peri. Since the types vary sometimes from site to site and valley to valley, much work along this line remains to be done.
The different types were produced by various kinds of apparatuses, some of which, owing to the aridity of parts of this area, have been found with mummies. The circular type was produced, of course, by a band of cloth. A pseudocircular type resulted from the use of a band in combination with a doughnut-shaped pad on the occiput. When the child was placed in a cradle and the head held in place by pressure on the forehead, the fronto-vertico-occipital type of flatten- ing was produced.
These variations in type are closely associated with culture and thus have chronological as well as geographical distributions. The oldest skulls yet found—Cupisnique, Paracas—are deformed. Thus
Vol.6] DEFORMITY, TREPHINING, AND MUTILATION—STEWART 45
the custom may have considerable antiquity here. Late crania are not so extremely deformed, as a rule.
(3) The Patagonian center comprises mainly Rio Negro, Chubut, and Santa Cruz Territories of Argentina. A single type of deformity— fronto-vertico-occipital, with variations simulating the circular type— is found here. Some of the material showing this deformity is recent, but a considerable age is claimed for the so-called fossil Man of Monasterio (Castellanos, 1928 b), which shows marked frontal flattening. Imbelloni considers this center in more detail on page 54 of the present volume.
A large portion of the literature on the subject of cranial deformity is devoted to classifications of types. _Gosse (1855) was one of the first to devise a comprehensive classification. His scheme was altered by Topinard, Virchow, Hrdlitka, and other writers, so that today there is no standard terminology. In addition, those working with South American materials sometimes applied local names to types. Thus the terms ‘ Aymara” and “‘circular’’ have become synonymous when applied to cranial deformity, although there is little justification for this.
Imbelloni has done more than anyone else to bring order out of this confusion. His classification is simple; it distinguishes primarily between the forms produced by small boards or other flattened sur- faces (tabulares) pressed against the head and the circular form produced by a constricting band. Both of these forms are subdivided into vertical or erect and oblique forms, depending upon variations in the direction of the applied pressure. The reader is referred to Imbelloni’s own statements in this connection on page 53 of the present volume.
Trephining.—Surgical removal of parts of the cranial vault during life has been practiced during historic times in Bolivia and Pert. (See vol. 5, p. 638.) The geographical and chronological distributions of the custom, as well as variations in technique, on the other hand, are known chiefly from skeletal remains. Judging from these remains, the custom rarely occurred outside the above-mentioned countries. A few specimens have been reported from Northwest Argentina, and it would not be surprising if others were found in North Chile.
Thus far, a few localities have furnished the majority of the reported specimens. Except for the Paracas Peninsula, where numerous speci- mens have been found, Coastal Peri has furnished only scattered examples. On the other hand, large numbers have been found in the Peruvian Highlands, particularly around Huarochiri and Cuzco. The Bolivian remains have come mostly from around La Paz. The frequency of the trephined skulls in collections from these several places are as follows: Huarochiri, 2-4 percent; Cuzco (Urubamba
46 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
River region, except Macchu Picchu), 17—21 percent; Bolivia, 5 percent; Paracas, 40 percent.
The Paracas skulls furnish the earliest record of this custon. Else- where, the skulls are usually attributed to the Late cultural period. Of the numerous sites about Cuzco yielding Jnca remains, it is note- worthy that the burials at Macchu Picchu did not include trephined skulls, perhaps because the majority were females.
Three techniques for removing the trepan are generally recognized: (1) cutting or sawing, (2) scraping, and (3) drilling. Cutting was done in both straight and curved lines. Straight-line cutting, per- haps better designated sawing, produced angular openings, usually square or rectangular, with the cuts extending into the bone beyond the opening. Curved cuts were perhaps slower, but left a neater, rounded opening. Scraping usually damaged an area larger than the final opening and probably was slow. Drilling seems to have been used seldom, and then for small openings. The instruments employed were chiefly obsidian and quartz flakes.
Straight-line cutting or sawing seems to have been most common in the central Highlands about Huarochiri. Elsewhere, a combination of circular cutting and scraping was used. At Paracas some of the skulls present immense areas in which the bone has been removed by cutting and scraping down to the thin inner table. There is some question in these cases whether they may have been done post mortem, since there are no signs of healing.
The rate of survival from this primitive surgery was surprisingly high. Tello found advanced healing of the bone in 250 out of 400 cases (62.5 percent); Rogers in 37 out of 59 cases (62.7 percent); whereas MacCurdy found this stage in only 55.3 percent of 47 cases. MacCurdy, however, regarded the stage of healing as “‘partial’’? in another 23.4 percent.
The reason for the operation is not always apparent. This absence of apparent cause in their series of 19 skulls led Mufiiz and McGee to suggest thaumaturgy as an explanation. Tello and subsequent writers have stressed the therapeutic nature of the procedure. Frac- tures are the principal indication for the operation. The Paracas skulls, according to Tello, are an exception in this regard, and this is further reason for believing that many of them may have been tre- phined after death.
The defect in the skull is said to have been covered in some in- stances by a disk of shell, metal, or other material. These disks, if discovered in situ, rarely have been described. Tello found a thin gold plate over a small trephine opening in one of his Paracas mummies.
Dental mutilation.—Chipping and filing of the teeth was practiced more commonly in historic than in prehistoric times, owing to the in-
Vol.6] DEFORMITY, TREPHINING, AND MUTILATION—STEWART 47
troduction of the African version of this custom by Negro slaves (Stewart, 1942 b). Inlaying of the teeth, on the other hand, was practiced only in Ecuador and in prehistoric times.
The prehistoric skulls with filed teeth thus far found come from Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Mutilation of the teeth by chipping was not practiced in prehistoric times, having been in- troduced by the Negroes. In Ecuador the filing was done primarily to make a bed for the inlay. However, in one case an upper canine and lateral incisor appear to have a shallow U-shaped groove on the occlusal border of each.
From the other countries of South America only about 7 specimens from prehistoric times have been reported. In some of these speci- mens the upper anterior teeth alone are involved, whereas in others it is the lower anterior teeth. In none is the full pattern of mutilation determinable, because of post-mortem loss of various elements. In most cases there is a single V- or W-shaped notch in the occlusal border of the tooth. A unique case from Santa Cruz, Argentina, presents a longitudinal V-shaped groove along the labial surface of the lower right first premolar. The practice in general was not common and probably was not old.
The examples of inlay are limited to three specimens, all of which come from Esmeraldas in Ecuador. Gold is the material inlaid. The number of teeth involved is variable; in the three specimens on record it is two, six, and eight—all upper anterior teeth. In most cases the inlays are circular but in one it is in the form of a band. Except in the use of gold, the Ecuadoran examples of dental mutilation resemble those commonly found in the Maya area.
In addition to these positive forms of mutilation, in which the teeth bear witness of their maltreatment, there is some evidence that a negative form known as ablation or the knocking out of a tooth— inferred from its absence in the skull—was also practiced in pre- historic times. Since teeth are lost in life through various causes, including accident and disease, a subjective element necessarily enters into the interpretation of the post-mortem dental remains. Hrdliéka, who alone has summarized the evidence from crania on ablation, has examined considerable material from North America and Siberia, but of South American material only that from Peri. Here he found evi- dence of the practice in about 4 percent.
In historic times this practice has been separately introduced by Negro slaves.
48 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
BIBLIOGRAPHY DEFORMITY
General references.— Aichel, 1932 a; Dingwall, 1931; Gosse, 1855; Hildén, 1932; Hrdliéka, 1912 b; Imbelloni, 1925 a, 1925 c, 1930, 1934 a, 1938 c; Topinard, 1885; Virchow, 1892.
Caribbean center references.—Broca, 1876; Brooks, 1889; Flower, W. H., 1891, 1895; Harrington, M. R., 1921; Marcano, 1893 a, 1893 b; Pérez de Barradas, 1937, 1938; Requena, 1932; Stewart, 1939; Verneau, 1901, 1924, 1927.
Pacific center references.—Chervin, 1908; Constanz6, 1942 a; Eaton, 1916; Falkenburger, “Frédéric, 1938; Falkenburger, Fritz, 1913; Hrdliéka, 1911; Imbelloni, 1925 b, 1932 b, 1933, 1934 b; Kroeber, 1926, 1930, 1938; Latcham, 1937; Maly, 1926; Morales Macedo, 1917 a; Stewart, 1943 a, 1943 c; Weiss, 1932.
Patagonian center references.—Castellanos, 1928 b; Imbelloni, 1923 a; Marelli, 1913 a; Verneau, 1894; Villagra Cobanera, 1938.
TREPHINING
Bandelier, 1904; Blasio, 1900 a; Broca, 1866-67, 1867; Burton, 1920; Cornejo Bouroncle, 1939; Daland, 1935; Escomel, 1910; Freeman, 1924; Lehmann- Nitsche, 1898 a, 1900, 1902 c; MacCurdy, 1918; Mantegazza, 1886; Mason, O. T., 1885; Moodie, 1929 c, 1930; Morales Macedo, 1917 c; Muniz and McGee, 1897; Pilares Polo, 1939; Posnansky, 1924; Quevedo, A., 1948; Rogers, 1938; Tello, 1913 a; Vélez Lépez, 1940; Wolfel, 1925.
DENTAL MUTILATIONS
Dembo, 1937 a, 1937 b, 1937 c, 1938, 1939; Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938; Hrdliéka, 1940 c; Ihering, 1882; Lasch, 1901; Linné, 1940; Saville, 1913; Vignati, 1939.
Other references dealing with these subjects.—Blake, C. C., 1869; Broca, 1878; Dembo and Paulotti, 1942; Jahn, 1932; Larco Hoyle, 1938-39; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1902 b, 1930 c; Maly, 1928; Manrique, 1937; McGee, 1894; Moodie, 1926 a; Moreno, 1880; Morton, 1846; Pinart, 1892 a; Posnansky, 1925; Puccioni, 1904; Rippen, 1917, 1918; Schrétter, 1898; Senéze, 1877; Stewart, 1942 b; Vergara Flores, 1894 a, 1894 b, 1894 c, 1895 a; Vignati, 1927 a; Vram, 1900 b.
PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN SKELETAL REMAINS
By T. D. Stewart
Relatively few diseases leave their marks on bones, and those that do so are not always accurately identifiable long after death. The response of bone to various disease processes is limited, which is the reason for this lack of differentiation in the end results. Nevertheless, many osseous lesions in the bones of prehistoric groups give indica- tions that aid in making historical reconstructions, whereas others give indications of dietary deficiencies and cultural habits.
The pathological studies made thus far on prehistoric remains from South America have been directed principally toward the identifica- tion of (1) chronic infectious diseases, such as syphilis, leprosy, and tuberculosis; and (2) degenerative changes such as arthritis, dental decay, and tumors or exostoses. The acute diseases, being much more rapid in their course, are less likely to leave marks, except when the bone is directly involved, as in mastoiditis. There were no unique diseases affecting bone in South America during prehistoric times, ex- cept possibly verruga and uta.
Chronic infectious diseases.—A controversy took place during the last decade of the last century, chiefly between Ashmead, Lehmann- Nitsche, and Virchow, as to whether the mutilations of the nose, mouth, hands, and feet represented in Mochica pottery should be attributed to leprosy, syphilis, or some other chronic disease. Virchow had originally identified the condition as leprosy, which view was strongly opposed by the others who were more inclined to regard it as syphilis or uta. Although nothing could be proved, this contro- versy served to focus attention on the antiquity of these diseases in the New World.
Since that time large amounts of skeletal material have been col- lected in South America, especially Peri, and these show remarkably little evidence of chronic infectious diseases. (Cf. Verneau, 1903; Hrdlitka, 1911, 1914.) Much of this material is not accurately dated and hence included pathological specimens may possibly come from the historic period.
A determined effort was made by H. U. Williams (1932, 1936) to find evidence of pre-Columbian syphilis in South America. He finally
49
50 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
decided on the basis of personal examination of many collections that there were only three specimens that would withstand close scrutiny both as to age and the nature of the disease. ‘Two of these specimens were from Pert (Paracas and Cafete Valley) and the third was from Argentina (Rio Negro).
As for tuberculosis, both Hrdli¢ka (1911) and Moodie (1927 b) have noted bones from Pert that they believed could be examples of this disease. The identification of tuberculosis is somewhat more definite than syphilis because of the tendency of the former to localize in the spinal column and produce kyphosis, the condition commonly known as hunchback. Garcia Frias (1940) studied three hunchbacked mummies from Pert believed to be prehistoric and demonstrated to his satisfaction that the lesions were due to tubercu- losis.
The evidence in general seems to show that the presence of these chronic infectious diseases in South America during prehistoric times isnot amply confirmed. Indeed, if they were present there at all, they were not very common. The evidence is perhaps best in the case of tuberculosis.
Degenerative changes.—There are certain changes in the skeleton, often becoming more pronounced with age, that may be characterized best perhaps as degenerative. Although age is undoubtedly a factor, there probably are other causal factors, such as nutrition, postural habits, and hereditary susceptibility, because the incidence of these changes varies among human groups. In the studies thus far made on South American Indian skeletal remains attention has been given principally to arthritis, dental decay, and tumors or exostoses.
The articular surfaces of bones sometimes present abnormal condi- tions, especially in advanced age. There is often a growth of bone about the edge of the joint. This is described usually as lipping. Also, there may be erosions of the joint surface together with polishing or eburnation. These conditions are usually termed arthritis de- formans or hyperthropic arthritis. If, as seems true in the living, there are several varieties of arthritis, they have not been fully dis- tinguished in the skeleton.
Hrdlitka (1914) found arthritis to be the most common pathological condition in the bones of the ancient Peruvians. It occurred in 2 per- cent of 593 humeri, 2.7 percent of 255 radii, and 5.3 percent of 301 ulnae. Here it was confined almost entirely to the elbow joint. The knee joint of the femur was involved in 3 percent of 1,210 cases and of the tibia in 1.5 percent of 781 cases. An unusual feature of this col- lection was the frequent involvement of the hip joint—3.6 percent of 694 innominata. In these cases the head of the femur was deformed
Puate 9.—Trephined skulls from Pert. Top: Skull from Cuzco with trephined opening in midfrontal region, interrupting the course of the metopic suture. Bottom: Skull from Huarochiri with large trephined opening in the right frontal region. The technique used in this case is that of cutting or sawing. (Courtesy United States National Museum, skulls Nos. 178,480 and 178,473.)
PLATE 10.—Surgical and dental use of gold. Top: Skull of the Paracas Cavernas culture with gold plate in place on a trephined opening, left frontal region. (Courtesy J. C. Tello and A. Guillen.) Bottom: Inlaid teeth and gold-covered teeth, Atacames, Esmeraldas, Ecuador. (Courtesy Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York.)
Puate 11.—Deformed skulls from Chicama Valley, Peri. Top: Lateral view of skull showing fronto-vertical-occipital deformity. Note ear exostoses. Bot- tom: Lateral view of deformed skull (tabular erecta of Imbelloni). (Courtesy United States National Museum, skulls Nos. 264,689 and 264,687.)
Puate 12.—Pelvis and femora from Chimu region, Pert, showing arthritis defor- mans. Pelvic bone and femur on right from one subject. Femur on left shows early stage of alterations; that in middle represents a very advanced case of flat “mushroom head,” that on right a pronounced caput penis condi- tion. (After Hrdliéka, 1914.)
Vol.6] DEFORMITY, TREPHINING, AND MUTILATION—STEWART 5]
correspondingly into shapes that have been termed descriptively “capit penis” and ‘‘mushroom head.”
Another collection that has been studied for this condition comes from the valley of the Rio Chubut in Argentina (Lehmann-Nitsche, 1903 a, 1904 a). Here the humerus (329 cases), radius (234 cases), and ulna (233 cases) were involved, presumably at the elbow, in 1.8, 1.3, and 3.0 percent, respectively. The femur and tibia (knee joint?) were involved in 1.56 percent of 320 cases and 1.85 percent of 323 cases, respectively. The other joints, including the hip were seldom arthritic.
Data on the vertebral column, which frequently shows arthritic lipping, are lacking, chiefly because this part rapidly disintegrates post mortem or is not always collected. Vignati (1931 c) has called attention to crania from Northwest Argentina with arthritic tem- poromandibular joints. This is not an unusual finding.
Dental diseases are perhaps a contributing cause of arthritis. However, Moodie (1928 e) has been the only one to show the asso- ciation of these two conditions in South American Indian remains. Most of the studies on the teeth have been made on Peruvian materials (Leigh, 1937; Moodie, 1928 d; Stewart, 1931), and have been con- cerned primarily with dental caries. This appears to have been the chief cause of ante-mortem tooth loss in Peri. Cavities first appeared in the developmental pits and fissures on the crowns of the molars and then on the approximo-cervical surfaces of all the teeth. Attri- tion did not often lead to tooth loss. The caries, however, started off a course of events that frequently led to tooth loss with varying attendant complications, including abscess and antral fistula.
In view of the widely differing environments in South America and the different diets of the native peoples that this entails, a broad study of the dental conditions here in prehistoric times would contribute to the knowledge of their etiology.
Bone tumors and exostoses may occur in almost any part of the skeleton although they show a preference for certain sites. Their cause is unknown. One of the most common forms occurs in the auditory meatus and is usually called ‘‘ear exostosis.” Hrdlitka (1935 a) has observed these in 14.3 percent of a large series of Peruvian skulls (11.7 percent of the ears). As usual, the condition was more common in males (22.2 percent as compared to 6.3 in females). Moller-Holst (1932) reports finding ear exostoses present in 16.7 percent of 341 Chilean and Bolivian skulls. On the other hand, Ten Kate (1896 a) found no exostoses in a series of 110 Calchaqui. The frequency of this condition in other groups has not yet been reported.
The so-called ‘‘third trochanter’ of the femur is an exostosis or hy- perostosis with somewhat of a functional association. Hrdlitka (1937) has found this structure developed to varying degrees in 32.6 percent
79471150 —_5
52 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. E. Bull. 143
of a large series of Peruvians. It tends to be more common in females (36.4 vs. 29.6 percent) and on the right side (males: 30.1 vs. 29.1; females: 37.9 vs. 34.6 percent). Costa (1890) found it present in 84.4 percent of 45 Fuegian femora, whereas Klimann (1938) found it in only 16.6 percent of 90 femora from Northwest Argentina (Diaguita, etc.). Similarly, in the Patagonians Verneau (1903) gives figures for the third trochanter varying from about 50 to 80 percent depending on stature (number of femora not stated), whereas Klimann (1938) reports it in 20.7 percent of 53 femora. These variations in figures probably indicate that there is a wide variation in the concepts of what constitutes the third trochanter as distinguished from the ordinary gluteal ridge or crest.
Still another hyperostosis occurs at times on the inner side of the lower jaw in the region of the premolars and molars. This condition apparently does not occur commonly in the jaws of South American Indians. Hrdli¢ka (1940 a), who alone has studied it, but only in Peruvians, reports slight hyperostoses in 3.8 percent of males and 3.1 percent of females.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General.— Moodie, 1929 a, 1931 b.
Chronic infectious diseases.— Ashmead, 1895 a, 1895 b, 1895 c, 1895 d, 1895 e, 1896, 1897 a, 1897 b, 1899, 1900, 1901; Bastian, 1895; Garcia Frias, 1940; Hrdliéka, 1911; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1898 b, 1899 a, 1904 b; Moodie, 1927 b; Salaman, 1939; Tello, 1909; Tello and Williams, 1930; Virchow, 1897 a, 1897 b; Williams, H. U., 1932, 1936.
Arthritis.—Hrdlitka, 1914; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1903, 1904 a; Verneau, 1903; Vignati, 1925 c, 1931 c.
Dental caries.—Leigh, 1937; Moodie, 1928 b, 1928 c, 1928 d, 1928 e, 1928 g, 1931 a; Stewart, 1931.
Tumors.—Costa, 1890; Hrdlitka, 1935 a, 1937, 1940 a; Klimann, 1938; Méller- Holst, 1932; Moodie, 1926 b; Oetteking, 1928.
See also the following.—Burton, 1927; Constanzé, 1942 ¢; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1902 a; Moodie, 1928 a, 1928 g; Moreno, 1880; Outes, 1915; Price, 1939; Stegmann, 1904; Thulie, 1877; Vergara Flores, 1895 b; Virchow, 1886 a.
CEPHALIC DEFORMATIONS OF THE INDIANS IN ARGENTINA
By Jos& ImMBELuoni
A study of the map of aboriginal deformities in Argentine territory, in connection with a map of South America, immediately reveals that the Argentine areas of peoples who deformed are a direct continuation of the areas of Andean culture. To state this more precisely, one observes in the northwestern, western, and northern provinces a complex of abnormal shapes which are related to the cultures of the ancient Peruvian and Atacamefo zone, and in the southern regions, a second complex linked to the deforming practices of the Araucanian area of Chile.
The first complex includes a larger number of shapes or models; the second includes only one, although it has adopted various special- izations in its implements (pls. 13, 14).
The following regions of Argentina belong to the first area: (1) The Puna of Jujuy, (2) the Quebrada of Humahuaca, (3) the Diaguita area, (4) the area of Diaguita influence.
(1) The Jujuy tableland contains the three artificial shapes: flat, vertical (tabulares erectos); flat, oblique (tabulares oblicuos); and annular (anulares). These apparently occur irregularly, although it may be said that the tableland, taken as a whole, acts as a sort of canal, on whose eastern side is found the flat oblique type of Huma- huaca, and on the western side the Atacamefo annular type, while in the central part, from north to south, flows the deeper stream of the vertical, flat form.
(2) The Humahuaca territory (the Quebrada with the same name) contains only flat, oblique deformation. We know of many hundreds of crania from the valley, of which only two or three are annular and undoubtedly came from neighboring regions. This region is the most homogeneous in its artificial molding.
(3) The Diaguita area, which includes the provinces of Salta, Catamarca and parts of Jujuy, la Rioja, Santiago del Estero, and San Juan, shows an overwhelming predominance of the flat types (among 542 crania there, 512 were flat and only 30 annular), and of the two flatftypes,”almost 90 percent were vertical, whereas only 10 percent were oblique.
53
54 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
FicurE 2.—Diagram showing the application of head flattening apparatus, Quebrada de Humahuaca.
(4) The area of Diaguita influence extends to the remaining territory of San Juan, a part of Cérdoba, and some of Santa Fé, in which more or less sporadic finds reveal the presence of deformed crania of both flat types, although their development in that area is less character- istic and few crania show annular deformation.
To the second area belong the ancient inhabitants of the valleys of Patagonia whose northern limits do not stop at present political boundaries.
In the political divisions of Rio Negro, Chubut, and Santa Cruz, and the southern part of the Province of Buenos Aires, deformed crania have been found, often in large numbers, although always in a cultural level above the layer of typically Pampean dolichocephals, who represent the truly ancient peoples of the Patagonian region. The plateau-dwellers who practiced deformation generally used the flat, vertical type. Rather numerous specimens from Rio Negro and other scattered sites in the southern part of Buenos Aires reveal a curious specialization of this general type, the “pseudocircular’” shape.
Among the instruments which native mothers used to mold the tender heads of their young children, we are familiar with that typical of the Quebrada de Humahuaca, an apparatus of ‘‘free” boards applied to the forehead and the occiput (fig. 2). This consisted of two boards, each composed of several layers of soft algarroba wood a little more than 1 mm. in thickness; the smaller was placed on the forehead, the larger on the occiput, with its center in the region of the inion; the two boards were then drawn toward each other by tightening the slender strands of wool which passed around them.
A device of two “free’”’ boards, similar to the one described above,
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Puate 14.—Apparatus for cranial deformation, Argentina. Top: Two wooden tablets of the apparatus for tabular erecta deformation. The frontal tablet measures 15.1 em. (6 inches) and the occipital tablet 22.7 em. (9 inches). Bottom: The apparatus applied to an infant’s skull. (Courtesy José Imbelloni.)
Vol. 6] CEPHALIC DEFORMATIONS—IMBELLONI 55
with each board made up of thin layers of hardwood or of one whole piece, must have been used throughout the entire area of flat, oblique deformation.
By contrast, annular deformation was accomplished by means of bandages and belts wound about the head to bind it in the manner of a kerchief or coif.
Flat, vertical deformation is done with an appliance which differs sharply from those just described. Whereas the ‘free’? boards were applied only to the head, leaving the child free to move, flat, vertical deformation required an apparatus applied to the body, which held the child with his head pressed against a flat plane (cradles). The cradles with which we are familiar from the ancient ethnography of the southern part of Argentina are constructed of pieces of wood and boards fastened with rawhide thongs and are so made that they can be stood upright on the ground or carried on the back of the Indians or on horseback.
We have not yet found traces of the instruments used for deforma- tion in the Rio Negro region, but examination of the “pseudocircular”’ crania assures us that the child’s head was fastened to the cradle, not by the pressure of a board on his forehead, but by means of a kerchief or elastic bands which produced the characteristic convexity— described as cylindrical-conical—of'the forehead.
In general, the cephalic deformities shown by aboriginal crania excavated from Argentine territory are the result of cultural influences emanating from the Andean-Pacific area, just as are all the South American deformities in general. The flat, vertical type belongs to the West Coast, from Tumbez southward; the flat, oblique type prevails in the zone of Manta and Esmeralda; the annular, derives from the coast of Atacama and Arica and extends across the ancient Peruvian territory toward the Montafia on one side and on the other descends southward toward the Puna. The distribution of the latter suggests great antiquity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938; Imbelloni, 1923 ¢, 1925 a, 1925 b, 1925 ec, 1926, 1928 a, 1930, 1931, 1932 a, 1932 b, 1932 c, 1933, 1934 a, 1934 c, 1934 d, 1938 ¢, 1938 e, ms.
See also the following: Bloxam, 1882; Dillenius, 1910, 1912 a, 1912 b; Imbelloni, 1938 d, 1940; Villagra Cobanera, 1938.
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THE LIVING SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS ANTHROPOMETRY OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS
By Morris STeGcGErDA
The Indians of South America, like those of the northern continent, vary greatly in their physical proportions. One cannot describe them collectively as being either tall or short; as having broad or long heads, long trunks or short arms; or even as having a dark skin color, or straight, black hair. For one finds exceptions to nearly every general statement that might be made about such a large group of people. Although such statements may apply to particular tribal groups, they are not appropriate to describe South American Indians as a whole. Therefore, rather than to present generalizations all of which would need modification, it is the purpose of this short article to tabulate the mean statures and cephalic indices for as many tribal groups as possible, and to indicate the availability of additional anthropometry for each group (pls. 15 to 22).
The accompanying table lists 88 Indian tribes, with their linguistic affinities! and their approximate locations. In addition to the stature and cephalic index for each tribe, all the available anthropometry is indicated by bibliographic reference. The number of individuals considered in each article is indicated, as well as the relative value of the article from the point of view of the number of dimensions con- sidered.
From the original sources it appears that the range of mean statures for the males is very great; namely from 145 to 184 cm. However, the mean of 145 is quoted from Roquette-Pinto (1938), who failed to indicate the number of individuals measured that went to make up the mean; and the figure 184 is based on only two Ona males recorded by Lehmann-Nitsche (1927). This wide range is greater than that found by Steggerda (1932) for North American Indians. In the present table the upper extreme of this range is somewhat modified by presenting a figure which is the average of the means recorded for the Ona. Thus the table shows a range between 145 cm., for an unknown number of Aruaki Indians as cited by Roquette-Pinto (1938), and 176 cm., representing a mean of four separate studies of the Tehuelche.
1Tn addition to the sources cited in table 1, see also J. A. Mason, this vol., pp. 157-317.
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58 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
By summarizing the studies in each tribe we are able to present, for the first time, some very adequate means; as, for example, for the Ona, where measurements of 85 males and 108 females are used to make one mean, and for the Quechua, where the mean figures are based upon 6 different studies comprising 446 males and 77 females. Similarly, for the Yahgan, 9 original sources are summarized in a mean based upon 450 male subjects.
On map 4 the recorded statures of males are plotted according to geographical distribution, based upon the data of the original sources. From this map it will be seen that the small statures below 160 cm. are found in the northwest and continue southeastward to more or less the center of the Continent, with a few scattered groups in south- ern Paraguay and Brazil. Those between 160 and 165 cm. occupy nearly the same area, but continue farther south along the western part of the Continent, far into Chile. The next taller group, of 165 to 170 cm., occupies a long, narrow strip reaching from northern Brazil to southern Argentina. Still taller Indians, averaging above 170 cm., are found in the southern part of South America, and at its southern- most tip. A small group of very tall Indians, the Bororo, occupies a small region in central Brazil, as indicated on the map.
The cephalic index of South American Indians has been treated similarly, except that males and females have been grouped together to form one mean. This seems justifiable, since there is no significant sex difference in adults for this index. The range, according to our present table, is from 76 percent for two tribes belonging to the Ge group to 90 for the Setebo, a Panoan tribe. The means shown in this table are weighted means covering all the work done on a particu- lar tribe. On map 5 the distribution of South American Indians by cephalic index is plotted according to information given in the original articles. It will be noticed that the long-headed Indians (76 to 79.9) are located centrally and to the south, while the broader-headed, mesocepbalic Indians (80 to 84) are also centrally placed, but farther to the north. The brachycephalic Indians are restricted more or less to a narrow band along the Andes. This band of broad-headed Indians extends north from Panamé up through Central America, along the Gulf coast of México, and then north through the western United States (Steggerda, 1932, p. 84).
As has been said, it is difficult to describe South American Indians in general. Yet if one breaks them up into linguistic groups, certain statements concerning their physical features may be made.
Carib.—Recorded anthropometry is present for 13 Carib tribes. In general, they are relatively short in stature, averaging 159.4 cm. for males and 147 cm. for females. Their arms are relatively long, with an average relative span of approximately 105, which corresponds closely
Vol. 6] ANTHROPOMETRY—STEGGERDA 59
LZ
J Ss
° 4 re ° O D °
MW Below & up to 159.9cm
STATURE
i
o 0° 0|165-169.9 cm
170 cm and taller
Map 4.—Distribution of stature among South American Indians. Males.
with that found by the author for the short Maya of Yucatan (104.7). Their shoulder width averages 36.6 cm., which, for so short a people, may be considered broad; the Yucatén Maya, as measured by the author, averages 38.0 cm. Their heads are longer and narrower than those of the average Maya. They are mesocephalic, with an index of 80, whereas the cephalic index for the Maya is 85. The Carib face and nose are not as broad as those of the Maya. The averages for various measurements on eight Carib tribes show them to be short, thick-set, with broad shoulders and relatively long arms.
Arawak.—Of 36 tribes listed as Arawak on Krickeberg’s linguistic map (Buschan, 1922), we have found recorded anthropometry for 15. The average stature for 151 males of these 15 tribes is 158.7 cm., which is practically the same as that found for the Carib (159.4 cm.). The
60 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. E. Bull. 143
W Below 76%
76%-79.9% o;70° Co [Pecos ese and over
Map 5.—Distribution of cephalic index among South American Indians. Mean of males and females combined.
CEPHALIC INDEX
Mehinacté and the Paumari Indians are fairly tall; but others, such as the Ipurina, Atorat, and Goajiro, are relatively short in stature. The female/male index for stature of the Arawak is 93 percent, which cor- responds closely to the average human sex difference for stature. Their relative span is 104.6, again in close correspondence with that of the Carib and the Maya Indians. Their trunk length, as indicated by the relative sitting height, is 51.2—practically the same as the average relative sitting height for Indians in general. In shoulder width they are even broader than the Carib, although their average stature is 7 mm. less. These small differences may be insignificant, but the measurements show the Arawak also to be a short, stocky, broad- shouldered Indian.
Vol. 6] ANTHROPOMETRY—STEGGERDA 61
In head length the Arawak equals the Carib—185 mm. as compared with 184.9 mm. In head width the average is the same, making the cephalic index also 80. Their faces, as judged by the bizygomatic breadth, seem slightly broader than those of the Carib, and their nose width as judged by the nasal index is also greater than that of the Carib.
Tupi-Guarani.—There are 11 tribes listed as Tupi-Guarant that have been measured. The average stature for males of these 11 tribes is 160 cm., making them slightly taller than either the Carib or Arawak. They, too, are mesocephalic, having an average cephalic index of 80.6.
According to the literature, the appearance and measurements of the Tupt-Guarant vary considerably among the different tribes. The Tiatinagua, of which only 4 were measured by Farabee (1922), have a mean cephalic index of 76.31, which is the lowest of any of these groups. While not differing greatly from other Tupi tribes in stature, they are described as having very slender bodies, long faces, and long hands. Their minimum frontal measurement is the lowest of all, due to a marked depression at the temples. The Munduruct and their neighbors are small of stature, never exceeding 160 cm. The Indians of the upper Xingti are taller, 162 cm., and are mesocephalic (80.4), with brown skin, straight nose, salient cheek bones, and wavy or straight hair. The Guarani average 166 cm. in stature, and tend to be brachycephalic. The Aweté are mesocephalic (80.2 to 81.8 in male and female), and sbort of stature (158 and 152 cm.).
Panoans.—The Panoans, found in the southwest of the Amazon Basin, are, according to Pericot y Garcia (1936), small of stature (160 cm. or less) and brachycephalic. The Mayoruna (Barbudo), described by Markham (1894-95), are taller than most of the other Panoan tribes, and have thick beards and a light-colored skin.
Eastern Brazil.—In eastern Brazil are such tribes as the Botocudo, Cayapo, Caingud, and Coroado. According to Pericot y Garcia (1936), the Botocudo are markedly dolichocephalic; they have strongly de- veloped supraorbital ridges, are prognathous, with strong inferior mandibles and a reduced cranial capacity. Their stature is small (158 cm.), and their extremities are slender. The Cayapé are taller and brachycephalic, have a lighter skin color, and are better built. The Coroado and Caingud are of medium stature, rather slender and well-proportioned. They have an oval face, horizontal black eyes, and dark skin, which sometimes tends to be lighter, according to the region inhabited.
Chibcha.—The Chibchan-speaking peoples appear to be very short in stature, with relatively long arms and broad shoulders. They are brachycephalic.
Quechua.—Eickstedt (1934), who deals in detail with the
62 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
Quechua, says that their body build is massive, the head short, and the face medium-short. Their stature is also rather small. The nose is often arched and the cheek bones are salient; the forehead is low, and the hairline, coming down quite low on the forehead, makes it appear still lower. The orbital ridges are not very strongly developed, and the eyes are not deeply set. The length and shape of the nose, together with the beardless face, lend a very characteristic appearance to the Quechua Indians. The chest, shoulders, and hips in both sexes are well developed.
Araucanians.—The dominant physical feature of the Araucanians is according to Pericot y Garcia (1936), a low stature—161 cm. for males, and 143 cm. for females. In the Araucanians of Argentina, brachycephaly is accentuated. The cheek bones are slightly salient, the nose straight or convex; the eyes are small and dark, the mouth large, the hair dark and straight. Their build is robust, with wide shoulders and small extremities; the skin is light brown to olive. (See also p. 129.)
Qther groups.—Short descriptions could be written of other groups, for example, the Ona, Yahgan, Alacaluf, Bororo, and Witoto, but the reader is referred to the table to determine where the literature may be found. (For the Ona, Yahgan, and Alacaluf, see p. 121.)
There seems to be a specific need for further information on Indian tribes from most localities in South America; perhaps this discussion might suitably end with an appeal to South American anthropologists to make additional surveys for their particular areas, and then to circulate their findings more widely.
63
ANTHROPOMETRY—STEGGERDA
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and Upper Xingti physical types. All males. Top, left: San Blas; top, right: Cuna; center, left: Tsuna; center, right: Carib (mixed?) ; bottom, left: Atorai; bottom, right: Wapishana. Armstrong Roberts; United States National Museum; University Museum, Philadelphia; the National Geographic Society; and, bottom, after American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 1, p. 441.)
(Courtesy H.
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Puate 16.—Indians of the Upper Xingi and the Chaco. All females. Top, left: Naravute; top, right: Calapalo; center, left: Caduveo; center, right, bottom, left, and bottom, right: Chamacoco. (Courtesy University Museum, Philadelphia; after Lehmann-Nitsche, 1904, Nos. 23, 89, 74, 54.)
Puate 17.—Indians of the Guianas, Montana, upper Xing, and northwest Amazon. All males. Top, left: Taruwma; top, right: Jivaro; center, left: Cala- palo; center, right, bottom, left, and bottom, right: Tuyuca. (After Farabee, 1918, p. 441; courtesy N. E. Anthony; courtesy the University Museum, Philadelphia; and after Koch-Griinberg, 1906, pls. 29, 22.)
PuLatEe 18.—Indians of the northwest Amazon and the Chaco. All males. left: Desand; top, right: Catapolitani; center, left: Caua; center, right:
Top, Tucano; bottom, left: Piratapuyo; bottom, right: Choroti. (After Koch-Griinberg, 1906, pls. 62, 137, 115, 12, 57; and courtesy American Museum of Natural History.)
Puate 19.—Indians of the Mato Grosso and the Ecuadorean Montaia. Top, left: Bororo male; top, right: Bororo male; center, left: Napo River male; center, right: Bororo male; bottom, left: Bororo female; bottom, right: Bororo female. (Courtesy David M. Newell; courtesy the United States National Museum; and center, right, after Lehmann-Nitsche, 1904, No. 34.)
Puate 20.—Andean and Chaco physical types. Top, left: Aymara (?) male; top, right: Aymara (?) male; center, left: Caduveo male; center, right: Chiriguano male; bottom, left: Araucanian male; bottom, right: Mataco female. (Courtesy United States National Museum; courtesy the National Geographic Society; after Lehmann-Nitsche, 1904, No. 10; after Outes and Bruch, 1910, figs. 62, 93; and courtesy American Museum of Natural History.)
PuLate 21.—Patagonian and Fuegian physical types. All males. Top, left: Tehuelche; top, right: Tehuelche; center, left: Yahgan; center, right: Tehuelche (?); bottom, left: Ona; bottom, right: Yahgan. (Courtesy Robert Lehmann-Nitsche through the United States National Museum; courtesy the National Geographic Society; after Outes and Bruch, 1910, fig. 109; after Lahille, 1926, pl. 4; and courtesy American Museum of Natural History.)
PLATE 22.—Patagonian and Fuegian physical types. All females. Top, left: Tehueiche; top, right: Tehwelche; center, left: Tehuelche (mixed?); center, right: Tehuelche (mixed?); bottom, left: Fuegian; bottom, right: Ona. (Courtesy the National Geographic Society; courtesy the American Museum of Natural
History; and after Lahille, 1926, pl. 4.)
67
ANTHROPOMETRY—STEGGERDA
Vol. 6]
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Vol. 6] ANTHROPOMETRY—STEGGERDA 69
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barrett, 1925; Bastos d’Avila, 1937, 1938 a; Bruch (see Outes and Bruch, 1910); Buschan, 1922; Chervin, 1907; Cooper, 1917 a; Deniker (see Hyades and Deniker, 1882-83 [1891]); Dreising, 1883; Ehrenreich, 1897 a; Hickstedt, 1934; Farabee, 1918 a, 1922, 1924; Feeney, 1941; Ferris, 1916, 1921; Garson, 1885; Gillin, 1936, 1941; Grubb, 1927; Gusinde, 1931-37; Harris, 1926; Holden, 1938; Hooton (in Lothrop, 1928); Hrdli¢éka, 1926; Hyades and Deniker, 1882-83 (1891); Jahn, 1926; Karsten, 1932; Koch-Griinberg, 1906 d, 1908 c, 1923; Krone, 1906; Kunike, 1911; Lahille, 1926; Latcham, 1904 b, 1909; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1904 e, 1904 f, 1908 a, 1908 b, 1916 c, 1916 d, 1916 e, 1927; Lopes, 1934; Lothrop, 1928; Markham, 1894-95; Mason, G., 1940; Maurel, 1873; Morong, 1892; Nord- enskiéld, 1905; Outes, 1909; Outes and Bruch, 1910; Pericot y Garcia, 1936; Petrullo, 1939; Polo, 1901; Posnansky, 1918, 1937; Roquette-Pinto, 1938; Rouma, 1913; Schultz, A. H., 1926; Serrano, 1930; Skottsberg, 1913; Steggerda, 1932; Taylor, 1938; Ten Kate, 1887, 1896 a; Vellard, 1934; Virchow, 1881.
Other references on anthropometry not cited in text. Aloja, 1939 a, 1939 b; Bohr, 1881; De la Hitte and Ten Kate, 1897; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1916 b, 1916 ¢; Martin, 1902 (?); Routil, 1939; De Semalle, 1869; Ten Kate, 1894.
General references on living Indians: Giraldo Jaramillo, 1939; Giuffrida- Ruggeri, 1912; Imbelloni, 1939 b; Lehmann-Nitsche, 1899 b, 1904c, 1904 d, 1904 e; Martin, 1928; Price, 1939; Stolyhwo, 1934 a; Williams, G. D., 1940.
ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE INDIANS OF BRAZIL By Jost Bastos p’AvILa
INTRODUCTION
The founding of the Museu Nacional in Brazil in 1818 marked the beginning of the anthropological study of the Indians who inhabited the jungle and forests of Brazil. In 1842, this study was further advanced by the establishment in this museum of the Seccg4o de Numismatica, Artes Liberais, Arqueologia, Usos e Costumes das Nacodes Antigas e Modernas. The archives and publications of this century-old institution comprise the first documents on the anthro- pometry of the Brazilian Indian. Special attention should be called to the remarkable studies made by Rodrigues Peixoto and J. B. de Lacerda (1876) on skulls and other material recovered from kitchen- middens (sambaquifs) of the coast and from caves in the interior of the country, and also to the work of Barbosa Rodrigues (1882), one of the first to become interested in the living Indian. Later, travel notes of foreign and Brazilian naturalists contributed to the considerable body of knowledge on the anthropometry of the American Indian in Brazil. Unfortunately, many of the Indian tribes, especially those along the coast, were already extinct when the anthropometric studies began.
A survey of the material impresses us not so much by its meagerness as by the lack of a fundamental criterion to serve as a basis for the organization of data already collected and as a guide to collecting further data. In short, we lack an adequate classification of the South American Indians.
Praiseworthy attempts at classification have been advanced, such as the one by Alcide d’Orbigny (1839), which, though at first ignored, is now better understood in terms not only of its main classification but of the premises upon which it is based. D’Orbigny recognized three great racial groups in South America: (1) Andine- Peruvian; (2) Pampean; (3) Brazilian-Guarant. His third group, the Brazilian-Guarani, is the only one that includes Brazilian Indians, and it embraces only one of Brazil’s Indian groups, excluding many others, which do not fit in with D’Orbigny’s classification.
Language has been the criterion for other classifications (this volume, p. 157), but these classifications do not wholly coincide with
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a2 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS [B. A. B. Bull. 143
physical type. Similarly, the Indians have been classed on a regional basis, as in volumes 1 to 4 of the Handbook. In the present treatment of the anthropometry of Brazil, we use divisions which are regional, linguistic, and tribal. The correspondence between environment, culture, and physical type is by no means complete; but it does suggest certain historical reconstructions.
The subsequent tabulations of anthropometric data are by linguistic families and tribes. As these tribes have been described in detail in previous volumes and as they are located on the tribal and linguistic map in the present volume, only minimal information is herein given on their culture and their native and present location; cross-references are made to the other volumes of the Handbook where the tribes are treated in full.
The regions of Brazil.—If we glance at a map of Brazil, we shall see that its vast territory falls into four regions according to elevation. Two of the regions can be considered as lowland, with a maximum altitude of about 60 feet (about 200 m.); two others as plateaus, with altitudes from 30 to 150 feet (about 100 to 500 m.). The Amazon and La Plata Basins in their Brazilian reaches, that is along the Paraguay, Paran4, and Uruguay Rivers, belong among the lowlands. The Coast of Brazil to a minimum depth of 45 miles (15 leagues) should also be included among the lowlands. This border, which in the south communicates with the La Plata Basin, strikes deeper inland toward the Equator and finally merges with the Amazon Basin. Guiana and the Eastern Plateau of Brazil form the highlands, con- nected by the Central massif, which separates the Amazon and Sao Francisco Basins on one side and the Sao Francisco and La Plata Basins on the other.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANTHROPOMETRIC TYPES
What peoples have inhabited these four regions of Brazil?
The Portuguese, on their arrival in Brazil, found the Tupi-Guarani Indians on the coast. Later observations showed that the Tupi- Guarani tribes, called by various names, occupied the whole of the coastal strip, the Paran& and Paraguay Basins, and extensive regions in the Amazon Basin. In other words, they completely surrounded the Central-Eastern Plateau, into which they were gradually pene- trating. In the Brazilian Guiana two groups were found, the Carib and the Arawak. Both had more or less well-populated nuclei on the right margin of the Amazon River. The Central-Eastern Plateau, a refuge area, was chiefly occupied by the Ge tribes which had per- haps been driven from the richer lowlands by more advanced and bellicose peoples.
When the subject is thus stated, it seems simple. It is difficult,
Vol. 6] ANTHROPOMETRY—D’ AVILA 73
however, if not impossible, to fit some of the tribes into this classifica- tion without mentioning the prehistoric and extinct tribes, traces of which are found in kitchen middens of the coast and in limestone caves in the interior of Brazil.
The skulls found in the kitchen middens of the southeastern part of Brazil (Handbook, vol. 1, p. 401), to which Eickstedt ascribes an even more remote antiquity than that of the Lagoa Santa Man (Handbook, vol. 1, p. 399). are, according to the exhaustive studies of J. B. de Lacerda (1885), characterized by dolichocephaly, low and retreating brows, wide, coarsely molded faces, square jaws, and teeth much worn by use. As Virchow noted (1872 a), these skulls should not be confused with those found in later strata, for the latter are definitely brachycephalic and probably belong to members of the ereat Tupi-Guarani linguistic family.
The “Man of Lagoa Santa” (pl. 23), exhumed by Lund in the caves of Rio das Velhas, resembles the ‘““Man of the Sambaquis”’ but differs from him mainly in a greater height of the skull, which when exam- ined from the front has a typically pyramidal shape.
The Central-Eastern Plateau of Brazil—The Lacida, our name for the “Man of the Lagoa Santa,” is thought to have been the first inhabitant of Brazil and perhaps of South America. His fossilized remains were exhumed from the limestone caves of Rio das Velhas by Lund, and were studied by Sdéren Hansen in Copenhagen and in 1938 by Hella Péch, who compared them with fossilized findings from Fontezuelas (Argentina).
After the Lacida, other more warlike and perhaps more cultured peoples may have come to Brazil dominating the first inhabitants, partly annihilating them and partly mixing with them, but, in any case, forcing them to take refuge in the regions of the Central-Eastern Plateau.
The “Tapuya” of the northeast and numerous groups of Ge as well as the southeastern Botocudo would thus be near relatives of the Licida but not their direct descendants. The same could be said of the natives of the massif of Mato Grosso and of the banks of the Xingti and Araguaya Rivers, and of the Bacairi, Nahukwa, Carajd, Cayapé, Aueté, Suya, Bororo, and many